Surveys of cereal diseases and pests in the Netherlands. 3. Monographella nivalis and Fusarium spp. in winter wheat fields and seed lots

Data from surveys of winter wheat fields in the period 1974–1986 and of seed lots in the period 1962–1986 and identifications of diseases on plant samples were compiled to describe the occurrence of snow mould (Monographella nivalis) andFusarium spp. On average,M. nivalis dominated overFusarium spp. The complex ofFusarium spp. constituted mainly ofF. culmorum, followed byF. avenaceum andF. graminearum. M. nivalis was dominant in May on stem-bases and in July on leaves and leaf sheaths. On seedsM. nivalis predominated only in years with low temperatures in July and August.Average brown footrot infection in the field was 4% tillers in May and 5% culms in July. Brown footrot intensity in July was high in cropping seasons with high precipitation in October and with low temperatures in October, November and December. In July during the early eighties, an average of 8% of leaves and 6% of flag leaf sheaths were infected byM. nivalis. Average ear blight incidence was 1.2% glumes infected. Seed contamination by these pathogens averaged 16% in the years 1962–1986. The contamination was high in years with high precipitation in June, July and August. Aspects of cv. resistance and yield loss are illustrated.     

禾谷镰孢荧光定量检测体系的建立及其在玉米苗枯病上的应用

为实现对田间土壤中禾谷镰孢Fusarium graminearum的定量检测,本研究构建了土壤含菌量与玉米苗枯病病情指数的回归模型。基于禾谷镰孢甾醇14α-去甲基化酶基因CYP51C序列,设计特异性引物HQ1-F/HQ1-R,利用引物建立实时荧光定量PCR(RT-q PCR)体系,选取4个玉米自交系品种进行室内苗枯病接种试验,调查其病情指数,利用RT-qPCR体系检测土壤禾谷镰孢含菌量,并对病情指数和土壤禾谷镰孢含菌量进行回归。结果表明,仅禾谷镰孢扩增出目的条带并且可从多种病原菌土壤中检测出。RT-qPCR的熔解曲线具有单一吸收峰,扩增曲线的循环阈值与模板浓度呈良好的线性关系,扩增效率为104.7%,标准曲线为y=-3.2137x+34.9560(R~2=0.9968),最低可检测到1 pg/μL的DNA。随着土壤禾谷镰孢接菌量的增加,单位土壤禾谷镰孢含菌量呈线性增加,即y=13.603x-85.370(R~2=0.9998)。4个玉米品种的病情指数与土壤禾谷镰孢含菌量的回归曲线分别为y=0.0789x+22.0590(R~2=0.7949)、y=0.0304x+7.8686(R~2=0.9579)、y=0.0458x+23.7540(R~2=0.5420)、y=0.0471x+32.0760(R~2=0.6753)。     

Fusarium head blight and mycotoxin contamination of wheat,a review

Summary An infection of bread wheat by fusarium head blight contaminates the crop with mycotoxins, particularly deoxynivalenol (DON) and nivalenol (NIV). The toxicity and natural occurrence of these mycotoxins in wheat are reviewed. Based on 8 years data of fusarium head blight epidemics of wheat in the Netherlands, DON contamination of the grain was estimated. Fusarium head blight ratings averaged an infection of 1.7% of all spikelets; estimates for DON contamination averaged 0.9 mg kg^–1. Taking a guideline level for DON in uncleaned bread wheat of 2 mg kg^–1, in 1979 and 1982 a wheat crop was produced with estimated DON concentrations above the limit of tolerance. Human and animal exposure to mycotoxins in the Netherlands appears to be small but chronic. The information presented in this paper illustrates the need for an annual evaluation of the crop for fusarium head blight incidence and mycotoxin content, and the necessity of fusarium head blight resistant wheat cultivars.Samenvatting Aaraantasting van tarwe doorFusarium culmorum enFusarium graminearum leidt tot vorming van mycotoxinen in het graan, waarvan deoxynivalenol (DON) en nivalenol (NIV) de belangrijkste toxinen zijn. In dit artikel wordt een overzicht gegeven van de toxicologische aspecten, en het voorkomen van deze toxinen in tarwe. Informatie over DON en NIV in tarwe in West-Europa is schaars. Gebaseerd op gegevens vanFusarium epidemieën in de jaren 1979–1986 wordt een schatting gegeven van de concentratie DON in Nederlandse tarwe. Rekening houdend met de herkomst en verwerking van tarwe, blijken zowel in dierlijk als menselijk voedsel lage concentraties DON chronisch voor te komen. Op basis van een maximaal toelaatbare dagelijkse dosis DON van 3 g kg^–1 lichaamsgewicht is de schatting van de dagelijkse opname van DON in het jaar volgend op de oogst van 1982 net op de grens. Zowel een jaarlijkse inventarisatie vanFusarium aantasting en DON besmetting van het graan, als de ontwikkeling vanFusarium-resistente rassen zijn noodzakelijk.     

基于链特异性RNA-seq的禾谷镰刀菌全生活史转录组分析

为明确植物病原真菌禾谷镰刀菌Fusarium graminearum全生活史的转录组特征和基因表达模式,采用生物信息学技术对其生活史不同阶段15个时期或组织的链特异性RNA-seq数据进行分析。结果表明,共有8 106个基因在所有时期均有表达,为禾谷镰刀菌生活史核心基因,占总基因数的47.2%;有性生殖和侵染过程中表达的基因数相对较多,其中有性生殖后期表达的基因数最多,达15 221个;无性产孢和侵染小麦穗过程中基因表达水平整体较高,而分生孢子中基因表达水平最低。在燕麦培养基上禾谷镰刀菌气生菌丝的基因表达模式与侵染过程中的基因表达模式较为相似,而与营养生长菌丝的基因表达模式差异较大。该菌次生代谢物合成特征酶基因和分泌蛋白基因的表达模式均分成3类,即分别在侵染、营养生长和有性生殖过程上调表达,暗示其在生活史不同阶段的特异性功能。     

Genetic variation of aggressiveness in individual field populations ofFusarium graminearum andFusarium culmorum tested on young plants of winter rye

Fusarium graminearum andF. culmorum are capable of infecting winter cereals at all growth stages. From natural field epidemics of wheat head blight and rye foot rot, three fungal populations were collected with 21, 38 and 54 isolates, respectively; their aggressiveness was analyzed in comparison to collections ofF. graminearum (25 isolates) andF. culmorum (70 isolates) that represent a wide range of geographical locations and host species. All isolates were tested for aggressiveness on young plants of winter rye in the greenhouse and scored for disease severity on a 1–9 scale. Disease ratings of individual isolates ranged from 1.5 to 5.7 indicating quantitative variation of aggressiveness. Genotypic variance was highest in the twoFusarium collections. No substantial difference was found in the amount of genotypic variation betweenF. graminearum andF. culmorum. Individual field populations revealed 57–66% of the total genotypic variation of the collections. This implies a high degree of diversity of aggressiveness within single field populations ofF. graminearum andF. culmorum causing natural epidemics.     

Effect of Fungicides on Fusarium Head Blight and Deoxynivalenol Content in Durum Wheat Grain

In 1998–99 and 1999–2000 six trials were conducted to evaluate the effect of fungicides on Fusarium head blight in the field, on infected kernels and deoxynivalenol (DON) concentration in grain. A single application of prochloraz, tebuconazole, epoxiconazole or bromuconazole, applied to durum wheat varieties at the manufacturer's recommended dose at the beginning of anthesis stage, provided good control of the disease when infective pressure in the field was low to medium, and when the main pathogens were F. graminearum and F. culmorum. Kresoxim-methyl showed a low efficacy at controlling the disease. Tebuconazole, prochloraz and bromuconazole were effective at controlling F. graminearum and F. culmorum, while kresoxim-methyl was not effective in reducing Fusarium infected kernels. DON concentration in grain of cultivars inoculated with F. graminearum and F. culmorum was high, averaging 4.2mgkg^–1 (untreated control). Tebuconazole, prochloraz and bromuconazole reduced DON concentration by 43%, while epoxiconazole was ineffective. DON concentration in kernels of naturally infected cultivars was 1.95mgkg^–1, a concentration which exceeds the 1mgkg^–1 maximum level of contamination allowed in the United States. Furthermore prochloraz, bromuconazole and tebuconazole applications, in the naturally inoculated trials, reduced DON concentration from 73% to 96%, while epoxiconazole showed the lowest effectiveness. Moreover, a positive linear correlation between Fusarium infected grains and the DON concentration was observed.     

黄淮海夏玉米主产区穗腐病病原菌的分离鉴定

为明确我国黄淮海夏玉米主产区玉米穗腐病的病原菌种类、优势种群及虫害、年度、省份对病原菌的影响,以形态学为基础,结合分子生物学方法对2013、2015年随机采自河南、河北、山东3省的155份玉米穗腐病样品进行分离鉴定。结果表明,引起黄淮海夏玉米主产区玉米穗腐病的主要致病菌为镰孢菌Fusarium spp.,包括拟轮枝镰孢F.verticillioides、禾谷镰孢F.graminearum、层出镰孢F.proliferatum、木贼镰孢F.equiseti及藤仓镰孢F.fujikuroi,分离频率分别为49.7%、28.4%、12.3%、3.9%和1.3%;其次为木霉菌Trichoderma spp.,包括哈茨木霉T.harzianum、绿色木霉T.viride和棘孢木霉T.asperellum,分离频率分别为8.4%、3.2%和5.2%;青霉菌Penicillium spp.分离频率较低,为14.2%;曲霉菌Aspergillus spp.包括黑曲霉A.niger和黄曲霉A.flavus,分离频率分别为2.6%和1.9%。研究表明,黄淮海主产区玉米穗腐病优势病原菌为拟轮枝镰孢、禾谷镰孢和木霉菌,不同省份不同年度间病原菌种类及优势病原菌存在差异,虫害能加重玉米穗腐病的发生。     

Sensitivity ofFusarium graminearum to fungicide JS399-19:In vitro determination of baseline sensitivity and the risk of developing fungicide resistance

The baseline sensitivity ofFusarium graminearum Schwade [teleomorph =Gibberella zeae (Schweinitz) Petch] to the fungicide JS399-19 (development code no.) [2-cyano-3-amino-3-phenylacrylic acetate] and the assessment of risk to JS399-19 resistancein vitro are presented. The mean EC₅₀ values for JS399-19 inhibiting mycelial growth of three populations of wild-typeF. graminearum isolates were 0.102±0.048, 0.113±0.035 and 0.110±0.036 μg ml⁻¹, respectively. Through UV irradiation and selection for resistance to the fungicide, we obtained a total of 76 resistant mutants derived from five wild-type isolates ofF. graminearum with an average frequency of 1.71 × 10⁻⁷% and 3.5%, respectively. These mutants could be divided into three categories of resistant phenotypes with low (LR), moderate (MR) and high (HR) level of resistance, determined by the EC₅₀ values of 1.5–15.0 μg ml⁻¹, 15.1–75.0 μg ml⁻¹ and more than 75.0 μg ml⁻¹, respectively. There was no positive cross-resistance between JS399-19 and fungicides belonging to other chemical classes, such as benzimidazoles, ergosterol biosynthesis inhibitors and strobilurins, suggesting that JS399-19 presumably has a new biochemical mode of action. Although the resistant mutants appeared to have comparable pathogenicity to their wild-type parental isolates, they showed decreased mycelial growth on potato-sucrose-agar plates and decreased sporulation capacity in mung bean broth. Nevertheless, most of the resistant mutants possessed fitness levels comparable to their parents and had MR or HR levels of resistance. As these studies yielded a high frequency of laboratory resistance inF. graminearum, appropriate precautions against resistance development in natural populations should be taken into account. http://www.phytoparasitica.org posting August 7, 2008.     

Development and Evaluation of an in vitro Detached Leaf Assay forc Pre-Screening Resistance to Fusarium Head Blight in Wheat

An in vitro detached leaf assay, involving the inoculation of detached leaves with Microdochium nivale, was further developed and used to compare with whole plant resistance ratings to Fusarium head blight (FHB) of 22 commercial cultivars and published information on 21 wheat genotypes, identified as potential sources for FHB resistance. An incubation temperature of 10 °C and isolates of M. nivale var. majus of intermediate pathogenicity were found to be the most suitable for the differential expression of several components of partial disease resistance (PDR), namely incubation period, latent period and lesion length, in wheat genotypes used in the detached leaf assay. There were highly significant differences (P < 0.001) for each component of PDR within commercial cultivars and CIMMYT genotypes. Positive correlations were found between incubation period and latent period (r = 0.606; P < 0.001 and r = 0.498; P < 0.001, respectively, for commercial cultivars and CIMMYT genotypes), inverse correlations between incubation period and lesion length (r = -0.466; P < 0.01 and r = –0.685; P < 0.001, respectively) and latent period and lesion length (r = –0.825; P < 0.001 and r = –0.848; P < 0.001, respectively). Spearman rank correlations between individual PDR components and UK 2003 recommended list ratings were significant for incubation period (r_s = 0.53; P < 0.05) and latent period (r_s = 0.70; P < 0.01) but not for lesion length (r _s = –0.26). Commercial cultivars identified with high resistances across all three PDR components in the detached leaf assay also had high whole plant FHB resistance ratings, with the exception of cv. Tanker which is more susceptible than the results of the detached leaf assay suggested, indicating an additional susceptibility factor could be present. Agreement between resistances found in the detached leaf assay and resistance to FHB suggests resistances detected in detached leaves are under the same genetic control as much of the resistances expressed in the wheat head of the commercial cultivars evaluated. In contrast, high resistances in each of the PDR components were associated with higher susceptibility across 19 CIMMYT genotypes previously evaluated as potential breeding sources of FHB resistance (incubation period: r = 0.52; P < 0.01, latent period: r = 0.53; P < 0.01, lesion length: r = –0.49; P < 0.01). In particular, the CIMMYT genotypes E2 and E12 together with Summai #3, known to have high levels of whole plant FHB resistance, showed low levels of resistance in each PDR component in the detached leaf assay. Such whole plant resistances, which are highly effective and not detected by the detached leaf assay, do not appear to be present in Irish and UK commercial cultivars. The most resistant Irish and UK commercial cultivars were comparable to the genotype Frontana and the most resistant CIMMYT germplasm evaluated in the leaf assay.     

Prochloraz for control of fungal pathogens of cultivated mushrooms

A wettable powder of prochloraz manganese complex 50% a.i. satisfactorily controlled the four major pathogens ofAgaricus bisporus andA. bitorquis: Verticillium fungicola var.fungicola, the cause of dry bubble,Mycogone perniciosa, the cause of wet bubble,Cladobotryum dendroides, the cause of cobweb disease andV. fungicola var.aleophilum, the cause of brown spots. The results were obtained in trials in trays with theAgaricus species, which were inoculated with the pathogens.The product was not toxic to bothAgaricus species in the effective dosages and the taste of the mushrooms was not affected by prochloraz formulations. Application of 1.5 g a.i. m^–2 nine days after casing is preferred, also in view of the residue levels. A 45% emulsifiable concentrate of the product without manganese was slightly toxic to mushrooms in a lower dosage than the wettable poweder.Samenvatting Een spuitpoeder met 50% prochloraz als werkzaam bestanddeel (een prochlorazmangaan-complex) gaf in de teelt van champignons (A. bisporus enA. bitorquis) een uitstekende bestrijding van de vier belangrijkste pathogene schimmels:Verticillium fungicola var.fungicola (de veroorzaker van droge mollen),Mycogone perniciosa (de veroorzaker van natte mollen),Cladobotryum dendroides (spinnewebschimmel) enV. fungicola var.aleophilum (de veroorzaker van bruine vlekken). Deze resultaten werden verkregen in proeven met kisten waarin deAgaricus-soorten, die geïnoculeerd werden met genoemde pathogenen, werden geteeld.Het produkt was voor geen van beideAgaricus-soorten toxisch als het werd toegepast in de werkzame doseringen, en de champignonsmaak werd door het middel niet nadelig beïnvloed. De voorkeur wordt gegeven aan toepassing van 1,5 g werkzame stof per m², 9 dagen na het afdekken, mede op grond van de gevonden residuwaarden. Een 45% vloeibare formulering zonder mangaan was, in lagere doseringen dan het spuitpoeder, in lichte mate toxisch voor champignons.     

Effect of benomyl on soil fungi associated with rye. 1. Effect on the incidence of sharp eyespot caused by Rhizoctonia cerealis

Effects of benomyl on incidence of pathogens affecting the culm base of rye were studied in field trials and growth chamber experiments. Spraying of the crop with the fungicide at a high dosage (2.4 kg.ha^–1) resulted in a tenfold increase of sharp eyespot caused byRhizoctonia cerealis and reduced foot rot symptoms caused by fusaria by 50%. In a field trial at a low dosage (0.24 kg.ha^–1) a slight increase of sharp eyespot was observed. In one year, probably because of wet conditions during the infection period, sharp eyespot did not occur in either benomyl-treated or untreated plots, but eyespot caused byPseudocercosporella herpotrichoides was abundant. Its occurrence was reduced from 74% affected culm bases in untreated plots to 8% and 1% in plots that received 0.24 and 2.4 kg.ha^–1 of the fungicide, respectively.In growth chambers seedlings were grown in two sandy soils inoculated withR. cerealis. The soil was kept dry at about 35% of the moisture holding capacity. In plots with benomyl (1 mg.kg^–1; moisture content 11% of fresh weight), fewer seedlings emerged than in plots without the fungicide. This result was highly significant (P<0.01) for one soil but not for the other. The number of seedlings that remained free of disease symptoms was higher (P<0.01) in untreated than in fungicide-treated plots of both soils.Isolates of pathogens obtained from diseased culms were tested for their sensitivity to benomyl. Growth of all of them includingR. cerealis was inhibited, although not always completely suppressed, at 10 g.ml^–1 on potato-dextrose agar. ED₅₀ values of most isolates ofR. cerealis were between 2.2 and 3.1 g.ml^–1. The fungus was slightly but consistently less sensitive thanF. culmorum. Mycelial growth ofF. nivale was appreciably more sensitive than that of the otherFusarium spp. from cereals.P. herpotrichoides andF. nivale were the most sensitive pathogens tested with ED₅₀ values of <1 g.ml^–1. Accordingly,F. nivale was absent on culms from treated plots. In a growth chamber experiment, seedlings were protected from infection by supplying the fungicide (1 mg.kg^–1) to previously inoculated soil.In a laboratory assay the effect of benomyl on microbial antagonism toR. cerealis was estimated for rhizosphere soil. Enhanced incidence of sharp eyespot in treated crops was associated with adverese effects of the fungicide on microbial antagonism. There is presumptive evidence thatR. cerealis is suppressed by bacteria after wet periods during the vegetation period of the crop and by fungi after dry periods. Only fungal antagonism, which may be less effective, is affected by benomyl. The response to benomyl of the microflora in different soils varied. Reasons for this inconsistency are suggested.Samenvatting In veldproeven en in een klimaatkamer werd de invloed van benomyl op het optreden van voetziekten in rogge onderzocht. In veldjes die bespoten waren met een hoge dosis van het fungicide (in totaal 2.4 kg.ha^–1) bleken tienmaal zoveel halmen met scherpe oogvlekken, veroorzaakt doorRhizoctonia cerealis, voor te komen dan in onbespoten veldjes. Daarentegen was voetrot veroorzaakt doorFusarium-soorten met 50% verminderd. In een volgende veldproef, waarbij een voor de praktijk geadviseerde dosis (0.24 kg.ha^–1) was toegepast, werd een lichte toename van scherpe oogvlekken waargenomen.In een ander jaar trad scherpe oogvlekkenziekte in het geheel niet op, ook niet in met benomyl behandelde veldjes. De vochtige omstandigheden tijdens de infectieperiode zijn daarvan waarschijnlijk de oorzaak. Daarentegen werd de oogvlekkenziekte, welke doorPseudocercosporella herpotrichoides werd veroorzaakt, veel aangetroffen. In de onbehandelde veldjes waren 74% van de halmen aangetast tegen 8 en 1% in de veldjes die met het fungicide waren behandeld in doseringen van 0.24 en 2.4 kg.ha^–1.De invloed van het fungicide op de aantasting van kiemplanten werd in klimaatkamerproeven onderzocht. Daartoe werden twee zandgronden metR. cerealis geënt. De grond werd droog gehouden (op 35% van het waterhoudend vermogen). In grond met fungicide (1 mg.kg^–1) was de opkomst minder dan in grond zonder fungicide. Dit was zeer significant (P<0.01) voor één van de beide zandgronden, maar niet voor de andere. Het aantal gezonde kiemplanten was in beide gevallen duidelijk hoger (P<0.01) voor de onbehandelde grond.De isolaten van ziekteverwekkers uit aangetaste halmen werden op hun gevoeligheid voor het fungicide getoetst. Op aardappel-glucoseagar werden alle isolaten in hun groei geremd bij een benomyl-concentratie van 10 g.ml^–1.R. cerealis was iets minder gevoelig danF. culmorum. Voor het overgrote deel van de isolaten vanR. cerealis lag de ED₅₀ waarde tussen 2,2 en 3,1 g.ml^–1. De myceliumgroei vanF. nivale werd meer geremd dan die van de andereFusarium-soorten.P. herpotrichoides enF. nivale waren met een ED₅₀ waarde van <1 g.m.^–1 de gevoeligste pathogenen die uit de halmvoeten werden geïsoleerd. Dat de populatie vanF. nivale in benomylhoudende grond wordt onderdrukt, blijkt uit (1) het feit dat de schimmel niet voorkwam op halmen uit behandelde veldjes en (2) de bescherming tegen infectie van kiemplanten als aan de besmette grond fungicide (1 mg.kg^–1) was toegevoegd.In laboratoriumproeven werd de invloed van benomyl op het microbiële antagonisme in rhizosfeergrond tegenR. cerealis bepaald. Een toename in het optreden van scherpe oogvlekkenziekte in behandelde gewassen bleek gepaard te gaan met een remming van het antagonisme tegen de ziekteverwekker. Er zijn sterke aanwijzingen datR. cerealis na vochtige perioden tijdens de vegetatieperiode door bacteriën wordt onderdrukt en na droge perioden door schimmels. Het antagonisme van de laatste groep lijkt minder effectief te zijn en alleen dit antagonisme wordt door benomyl verlaagd. Tenslotte wordt een mogelijke oorzaak aangegeven voor de ongelijke respons op het fungicide van het microbieel antagonisme in verschillende gronden.     

江苏省水稻赤霉病病原菌分离鉴定与致病力分析

为明确江苏省水稻赤霉病的病原菌组成及致病特征,于2018—2019年从江苏省13个市41个县区采集341份水稻样品,采用组织分离法对病原菌进行分离纯化,基于翻译延伸因子（translationelongation factor-1α,TEF-1α）序列分析对分离菌株进行鉴定,通过TRI11基因序列鉴定及产毒力测定对其产毒化学型进行分析,并按照柯赫氏法则对其致病力进行验证。结果显示,从水稻样品中共分离获得病原菌392株,其中亚洲镰刀菌Fusarium asiaticum为385株,禾谷镰刀菌F. graminearum为7株。亚洲镰刀菌分为3-乙酰化脱氧雪腐镰刀菌烯醇（3-acetyldeoxynivalenol,3ADON）化学型和雪腐镰刀菌烯醇（nivalenol,NIV）化学型菌株,分别占亚洲镰刀菌总菌株数的 66.8% 和 33.2%;禾谷镰刀菌均为（15-acetyldeoxynivalenol,15ADON）化学型。产3ADON的亚洲镰刀菌在全省范围内为优势群体,而产15ADON的禾谷镰刀菌仅在淮北地区被发现;产NIV的亚洲镰刀菌对水稻的致病性要显著高于产3ADON的亚洲镰刀菌。不同产毒化学型亚洲镰刀菌对水稻均有一定致病性,但NIV化学型亚洲镰刀菌对水稻的致病力最强。     

Genetic Analysis of the Role of Trichothecene and Fumonisin Mycotoxins in the Virulence of Fusarium

The phytotoxicity of the Fusarium trichothecene and fumonisin mycotoxins has led to speculation that both toxins are involved in plant pathogenesis. This subject has been addressed by examining virulence of trichothecene and fumonisin-nonproducing mutants of Fusarium in field tests. Mutants were generated by transformation-mediated disruption of genes encoding enzymes that catalyze early steps in the biosynthesis of each toxin. Two economically important species of Fusarium were selected for these studies: the trichothecene-producing species Fusarium graminearum, which causes wheat head blight and maize ear rot, and the fumonisin-producing species F. verticillioides, which causes maize ear rot. Trichothecene-non-producing mutants of F. graminearum caused less disease than the wild-type strain from which they were derived on both wheat and maize, although differences in virulence on maize were not observed under hot and dry environmental conditions. Genetic analyses of the mutants demonstrated that the reduced virulence on wheat was caused by the loss of trichothecene production rather than by a non-target mutation induced by the gene disruption procedure. Although the analyses of virulence of fumonisin-non-producing mutants of F. verticillioides are not complete, to date, the mutants have been as virulent on maize ears as their wild-type progenitor strains. The finding that trichothecene production contributes to the virulence of F. graminearum suggests that it may be possible to generate plants that are resistant to this fungus by increasing their resistance to trichothecenes. As a result, several researchers are trying to identify trichothecene resistance genes and transfer them to crop species.     

禾谷镰孢菌对氟唑菌酰羟胺敏感性基线的建立及药剂田间防效

为明确琥珀酸脱氢酶抑制剂类新型吡啶酰胺杀菌剂氟唑菌酰羟胺在中国小麦赤霉病防治中的应用潜力,分别采用菌丝生长速率法和孢子萌发法,测定了氟唑菌酰羟胺对湖北省6个地区106株禾谷镰孢菌的室内毒力、田间防效及其与多菌灵和氰烯菌酯的交互抗性。结果显示:氟唑菌酰羟胺对106株禾谷镰孢菌菌丝生长的EC₅₀值为 (0.018 0 ± 0.209 0) mg/L,平均值为 (0.072 8 ± 0.025 9) mg/L;对分生孢子萌发的EC₅₀值为 (0.052 7 ± 0.473 2) mg/L,平均值为 (0.176 0± 0.059 6) mg/mL;且其EC₅₀值频率分布均呈单峰曲线,因此可分别将菌丝生长和孢子萌发的平均EC₅₀值作为禾谷镰孢菌对氟唑菌酰羟胺的敏感性基线。初步的交互抗性测定结果表明,抗多菌灵或氰烯菌酯的菌株对氟唑菌酰羟胺均未表现出抗性。田间试验显示,氟唑菌酰羟胺有效剂量200 g/hm2处理的防效 (超过90.0%) 显著高于对照药剂氰烯菌酯600 g/hm2的防效 (78.0%),与空白对照相比增产效果在127%~135%之间。经氟唑菌酰羟胺处理后,小麦籽粒中由禾谷镰孢菌产生的毒素脱氧雪腐镰刀菌烯醇 (DON) 的含量比空白对照降低了55.09%。研究表明,氟唑菌酰羟胺对禾谷镰孢菌呈现出较高的室内活性且田间防效优越,同时还能降低小麦籽粒中DON毒素的含量及提高小麦产量,因此可作为生产中防治小麦赤霉病的替代或后备药剂,同时也可考虑用作为禾谷镰孢菌对多菌灵抗性治理的替代药剂。     

Population structure of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium asiaticum</Emphasis> from two Japanese regions and eastern China

Genetic subdivision of Fusarium asiaticum was investigated using a collection of 478 isolates originating from the Kyushu area and Aichi Prefecture, Japan and Zhejiang Province in China. Trichothecene-type determination by a multiplex PCR-test indicated that all isolates were either of a nivalenol (NIV) or a 3-acetyl deoxynivalenol (3ADON) type. The 15-acetyl deoxynivalenol (15ADON) type was not detected in this collection. Based on a Bayesian model-based clustering method using allele data obtained with 11 variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR) markers, we detected three genetic clusters. The majority of isolates in the clusters were NIV isolates from both Japan and China, Japanese 3ADON and Chinese 3ADON isolates, respectively. High levels of fixation indices and low levels of effective number of migrants were observed between the genetic clusters. Data was re-analyzed by classifying the isolates into six groups according to trichothecene type and geographic location. Population analyses of these re-classified groups indicated that the genetic subdivisions of F. asiaticum were correlated with both trichothecene type and geographic differences. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Genetic analysis and PCR-based identification of major <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium</Emphasis> species causing head blight on wheat in Japan

Identifying the Fusarium species cause Fusarium head blight (FHB) and produces mycotoxins in wheat and other cereal is difficult and time consuming because of confusing phenotypic classification systems. In Japan, the F. graminearum complex, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, and Microdochium nivale predominantly cause FHB. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and 5.8S of rDNA, a partial sequence of β-tubulin and mitochondrial cytochrome b (cytb) genes of the four species were PCR-amplified and analyzed. On the basis of the ITS, β-tubulin and cytb sequences, F. avenaceum and M. nivale are distinct from the F. graminearum complex and F. culmorum, whereas the F. graminearum complex is closely related to F. culmorum. Moreover, thiophanate–methyl-resistant isolates of the F. graminearum complex and F. culmorum did not have an amino acid substitution at amino acid codon 198 or 200 of β-tubulin. In contrast, very highly or highly thiophanate–methyl-resistant isolates of M. nivale had Glu (GAG) substituted with Ala (GCG) or Lys (AAG) at codon 198, respectively. The allele-specific PCR assay was used to identify the F. graminearum complex and F. culmorum, and these Fusarium species could be distinguished rapidly.     

Reliable detection of the fungal pathogenfusarium oxysporum f.sp.albedinis, causal agent of bayoud disease of date palm, using molecular techniques

Bayoud, caused by the soilborne fungusFusarium oxysporum f.sp.albedinis (FOA), is the most serious disease of date palm. Since the disease is located in the North African countries of Morocco and Algeria, and advancing steadily eastwards, the ultimate goal is to prevent spread of the pathogen to other date-growing areas in the region and farther afield. Molecular diagnostic techniques have been developed for detection of FOA. In view of the fact that the fungus does not exist in Israel, DNA of FOA was obtained to determine the reliability of these methods for diagnostic purposes. Random amplified polymorphic DNA was not reliable enough for differentiation between FOA and various pathogenic and saprophyticFusarium isolates. However, the polymerase chain reaction utilizing FOA-specific primers was accurate and enabled amplification of a unique band specific to FOA DNA alone, and not that of the other tested pathogenic and saprophyticFusaria. The availability of a rapid and reliable diagnostic tool for detection of FOA will enable the Plant Protection and Inspection Services of the Israel Ministry of Agriculture to test date palm tissue for the presence of the pathogen. Contribution no. 513/00 from the Inst. of Plant Protection, ARO, The Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel.     

Effect of solarization and fumigant applications on soilborne pathogens and root-knot nematodes in greenhouse-grown tomato in Turkey

A study was conducted in two greenhouses with a history of Fusarium crown and root rot (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.radicis-lycopersici, Forl) and root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne javanica andM. incognita). During the 2005–06 growing season, the effectiveness of soil disinfestation by solarization in combination with low doses of metham-sodium (500, 750, 1000 and 1250l ha⁻¹) or dazomet (400 g ha⁻¹), was tested against soilborne pathogens and nematodes in an attempt to find a suitable alternative to methyl bromide, which is soon to be phased out. Solarization alone was not effective in the greenhouse with a high incidence ofForl. In the greenhouse with a low level ofForl, all the treatments tested reduced disease incidence, and were therefore considered to be applicable for soil disinfestation. In addition, root-knot nematode density decreased with all the treatments tested in both of the greenhouses.     

Fungi on roots and stem bases of asparagus in the Netherlands: species and pathogenicity

A survey was made to identify the most important soilborne fungal pathogens of asparagus crops in the Netherlands. Ten plants were selected from each of five fields with a young (1–4 y) first planting, five fields with an old (6–13 y) first planting and five fields with a young replanting. The analysis included fungi present in the stem base and the roots of plants with symptoms of foot and root rot or showing growth decline without specific disease symptoms. Isolates of each species were tested for pathogenicity to asparagus on aseptically grown plantlets on Knop's agar. Symptoms were caused byFusarium oxysporum, F. culmorum, Botrytis cinerea, Penicillium verrucosum var.cyclopium, Cylindrocarpon didymum, Phialophora malorum, Phoma terrestris andAcremonium strictum. F. oxysporum was by far the most common species and was isolated from 80% of the plants. Not all of its isolates were pathogenic to asparagus. Symptoms were caused by 67%, 78% and 93% of the isolates obtained from young first plantings, old first plantings and replantings, respectively.F. culmorum was isolated from 31% of the plants. Two other notorious pathogens of asparagus,F. moniliforme andF. proliferatum, did not occur in our samples.Species causing symptoms in the vitro test that were found on more than 5% of the plants were additionally tested for their pathogenicity in pot experiments.F. oxysporum f.sp.asparagi caused severe foot and root rot, significantly reduced root weights and killed most of the plants.F. culmorum caused lesions on the stem base often resulting in death of the plant.P. terrestris, a fungus only once reported as a pathogen of asparagus, caused an extensive root rot, mainly of secondary roots that became reddish. The fungus was isolated in only a few samples and is not to be regarded as an important pathogen in Dutch asparagus crops.P. malorum caused many small brown lesions on the stem base and incidentally also on the upper part of small main roots. This is the first report of its pathogenicity to asparagus. The fungus is one of the organisms inciting spear rust and it reduced crop quality rather than crop yield.P. verrucosum var.cyclopium andC. didymum did not cause symptoms in pot experiments.Because of its predominance on plants with foot and root rot and its high virulence,F. oxysporum f.sp.asparagi was considered to be the main soilborne pathogen of asparagus in the Netherlands.