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1.
There is increasing interest in developing criteria to evaluate the environmental implications of intensive agricultural land use. This implies discriminating between nature and man-made effects upon structural and functional attributes of agroecosystems. Adequate indicators of these combined effects should be cost efficient yet compatible with the core of ecological theory on biodiversity, spatial organization and ecosystem stability. We developed resistance-resilience metrics of plant growth to evaluate the intensity of agricultural use in a temperate irrigated basin in southern Argentina. The metrics are based on an analysis of the components of a temporal series of vegetation indices computed at a low resolution from available globally remote sensed reflectance imagery. We related the developed metrics to the properties of the soils and plant canopies observed at field scale and high-resolution imagery of the basin. Soil depth, soil erosion status and land fragmentation account for large fractions of the variance of the distribution of functional groups of the plant canopies and are also correlated with smaller scale attributes of land vegetation cover. Resistance-resilience indicators constitute a cost-efficient and adequate approach to evaluate the degree of intensification of land agricultural use. 相似文献
2.
Jian Yang Thomas E. Dilts Lea A. Condon P. Lee Turner Peter J. Weisberg 《Landscape Ecology》2011,26(3):381-395
Riparian vegetation is distinct from adjacent upland terrestrial vegetation and its distribution is affected by various environmental
controls operating at the longitudinal scale (along the river) or transverse scale (perpendicular to the river). Although
several studies have shown how the relative importance of transverse or longitudinal influences varies with the scale of observation,
few have examined how the influences of the two scales vary with the level of ecological organization. We modeled vegetation-environment
relationships at three hierarchically nested levels of ecological organization: species, plant community, and vegetation type.
Our hierarchically structured analyses differentiated the spatial extent of riparian zones from adjacent upland vegetation,
the distribution of plant community types within the riparian zone, and the distribution of plant species within community
types. Longitudinal gradients associated with climate and elevation exerted stronger effects at the species level than at
the community level. Transverse gradients related to lateral surface water flux and groundwater availability distinguished
riparian and upland vegetation types, although longitudinal gradients of variation better predicted species composition within
either riparian or upland communities. We concur with other studies of riparian landscape ecology that the relative predictive
power of environmental controls for modeling patterns of biodiversity is confounded with the spatial extent of the study area
and sampling scheme. A hierarchical approach to spatial modeling of vegetation-environment relationships will yield substantial
insights on riparian landscape patterns. 相似文献
3.
Structure of plant communities and landscape patterns in alluvial meadows of two flood plains in the north-east of France 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
Flood frequency and agricultural pressure can effect pattern and diversity in the plant communities and the landscape of flood plain meadows. The flood plains of north-east France are valuable semi- natural ecosystems with a high diversity of plants. This study was carried out in two valleys with plant communities showing the same zonation along a moisture gradient. About 350 measurements in each valley were carried out on 50 m2 sampling sites. Two study areas were intensively measured within each of the two valleys (1300 ha in total). Hydrological, geological and human factors have determined the unique landscape pattern of each valley. Using vegetation maps (1/5000) of the two valleys, landscape structure in terms of the size, number and form of patches were compared and the characteristics of the disturbance regimes (natural and human disturbance) creating each landscape are analysed. Variations of landscape indices are discussed in relation to the increase in agricultural pressure. Using quantitative parameters of landscape ecology to analyse vegetation mosaics provides an assessment of agricultural pressure and natural constraints on the flood plain scale. Agricultural intensification led to a decrease of meadow complexity whose natural rough shapes are made straight. Moreover flooded meadows lost thus natural connectivity with ditches and river which determined biodiversity and ecological processes of flood plains. 相似文献
4.
Associations between soil carbon and ecological landscape variables at escalating spatial scales in Florida,USA 总被引:1,自引:1,他引:0
The spatial distribution of soil carbon (C) is controlled by ecological processes that evolve and interact over a range of
spatial scales across the landscape. The relationships between hydrologic and biotic processes and soil C patterns and spatial
behavior are still poorly understood. Our objectives were to (i) identify the appropriate spatial scale to observe soil total
C (TC) in a subtropical landscape with pronounced hydrologic and biotic variation, and (ii) investigate the spatial behavior
and relationships between TC and ecological landscape variables which aggregate various hydrologic and biotic processes. The
study was conducted in Florida, USA, characterized by extreme hydrologic (poorly to excessively drained soils), and vegetation/land
use gradients ranging from natural uplands and wetlands to intensively managed forest, agricultural, and urban systems. We
used semivariogram and landscape indices to compare the spatial dependence structures of TC and 19 ecological landscape variables,
identifying similarities and establishing pattern–process relationships. Soil, hydrologic, and biotic ecological variables
mirrored the spatial behavior of TC at fine (few kilometers), and coarse (hundreds of kilometers) spatial scales. Specifically,
soil available water capacity resembled the spatial dependence structure of TC at escalating scales, supporting a multi-scale
soil hydrology-soil C process–pattern relationship in Florida. Our findings suggest two appropriate scales to observe TC,
one at a short range (autocorrelation range of 5.6 km), representing local soil-landscape variation, and another at a longer
range (119 km), accounting for regional variation. Moreover, our results provide further guidance to measure ecological variables
influencing C dynamics. 相似文献
5.
Ángeles G. Mayor Sonia Kéfi Susana Bautista Francisco Rodríguez Fabrizio Cartení Max Rietkerk 《Landscape Ecology》2013,28(5):931-942
Conceptual frameworks of dryland degradation commonly include ecohydrological feedbacks between landscape spatial organization and resource loss, so that decreasing cover and size of vegetation patches result in higher water and soil losses, which lead to further vegetation loss. However, the impacts of these feedbacks on dryland dynamics in response to external stress have barely been tested. Using a spatially-explicit model, we represented feedbacks between vegetation pattern and landscape resource loss by establishing a negative dependence of plant establishment on the connectivity of runoff-source areas (e.g., bare soils). We assessed the impact of various feedback strengths on the response of dryland ecosystems to changing external conditions. In general, for a given external pressure, these connectivity-mediated feedbacks decrease vegetation cover at equilibrium, which indicates a decrease in ecosystem resistance. Along a gradient of gradual increase of environmental pressure (e.g., aridity), the connectivity-mediated feedbacks decrease the amount of pressure required to cause a critical shift to a degraded state (ecosystem resilience). If environmental conditions improve, these feedbacks increase the pressure release needed to achieve the ecosystem recovery (restoration potential). The impact of these feedbacks on dryland response to external stress is markedly non-linear, which relies on the non-linear negative relationship between bare-soil connectivity and vegetation cover. Modelling studies on dryland vegetation dynamics not accounting for the connectivity-mediated feedbacks studied here may overestimate the resistance, resilience and restoration potential of drylands in response to environmental and human pressures. Our results also suggest that changes in vegetation pattern and associated hydrological connectivity may be more informative early-warning indicators of dryland degradation than changes in vegetation cover. 相似文献
6.
The near-to-nature urban forestry concept and practices are widely recognized for urban greening, urban ecosystem restoration, urban greenspace management for biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services provision. However, the regeneration and succession of urban vegetation are rarely studied due to the complex settings of the urban environment. To this end, we conducted a large-scale field investigation in the metropolitan area of Beijing, China to explore the spatial variations in plant species composition and diversity in soil seed banks, and their similarity to the aboveground vegetation to assess the potential of urban plant regeneration. Overall, 657 vegetation and soil sampling plots from 219 grids, measuring 2 km × 2 km each, were investigated within two perpendicular 10 km wide transects running across the urban center in north-south and east-west directions within the 6th Ring Road of the city. We recorded a total of 102 plant species in soil seed banks, including 13 tree species, 10 shrub species, and 79 herb species. We found that the soil seed bank species diversity and its similarity to that of the aboveground vegetation communities decreased significantly with the urbanization intensity. Higher urbanization intensity is typically associated with increased human management and a reduction in Greenspace Area (GSA). Soil seed bank species richness increased significantly when GSA exceeded 45 % and the similarity of species composition and diversity between soil seed banks and aboveground vegetation communities was the highest in forest parks. This suggests that habitats under forest park management are more conducive to plant regeneration. Soil seed bank species diversity first increased and then decreased significantly with increased distance to the city center, whereas the species similarity between the soil seed banks and the aboveground vegetation communities showed little change with the ring roads going out. The results of this study have important implications for further understanding the potential for urban vegetation regeneration and sustainability, which have significant implications for urban biodiversity conservation and restoration. 相似文献
7.
Landscape influences on stream biotic integrity assessed at multiple spatial scales 总被引:31,自引:0,他引:31
The biological integrity of stream ecosystems depends critically on human activities that affect land use/cover along stream
margins and possibly throughout the catchment. We evaluated stream condition using an Index of Biotic Integrity (IBI) and
a habitat index (HI), and compared these measures to landscape and riparian conditions assessed at different spatial scales
in a largely agricultural Midwestern watershed. Our goal was to determine whether land use/cover was an effective predictor
of stream integrity, and if so, at what spatial scale. Twenty-three sites in first-through third-order headwater streams were
surveyed by electrofishing and site IBIs were calculated based on ten metrics of the fish collection. Habitat features were
characterized through field observation, and site HIs calculated from nine instream and bank metrics. Field surveys, aerial
photograph interpretation, and geographic information system (GIS) analyses provided assessments of forested land and other
vegetation covers at the local, reach, and regional (catchment) scales.
The range of conditions among the 23 sites varied from poor to very good based on IBI and HI scores, and habitat and fish
assemblage measures were highly correlated. Stream biotic integrity and habitat quality were negatively correlated with the
extent of agriculture and positively correlated with extent of wetlands and forest. Correlations were strongest at the catchment
scale (IBI with % area as agriculture, r2=0.50, HI with agriculture, r2=0.76), and tended to become weak and non-significant at local scales. Local riparian vegetation was a weak secondary predictor
of stream integrity. In this watershed, regional land use is the primary determinant of stream conditions, able to overwhelm
the ability of local site vegetation to support high-quality habitat and biotic communities. 相似文献
8.
Agricultural soil redistribution and landscape complexity 总被引:2,自引:0,他引:2
A number of hypotheses and conceptual models, particularly those emphasizing nonlinear dynamics and self-organization, postulate increases or decreases in complexity in the evolution of drainage basins, topography, soils, ecosystems, and other earth surface systems. Accordingly, it is important to determine under what circumstances and at what scales either trend might occur. This paper is concerned with changes in soil landscape complexity due to redistribution of sediment by fluvial, aeolian, and tillage processes at historical time scales in an agricultural field system near Grifton, North Carolina. Soil mapping and soil stratigraphic investigations were used to identify and map soil changes associated with erosion and deposition by water, wind, and tillage; reconstruct the pre-agricultural soil pattern; and identify transformations between soil types. The Kolmogorov entropy of the pre- and post- agricultural landscapes was then compared. The soil transformations associated with erosion and deposition created four distinct new soils and made possible new transformations among soil series, increasing the number of soil types from seven to 11 and the number of possible transformations from 14 to 22. However, the entropy and complexity of the soil landscape decreased, with associated increases in information and redundancy. The mass redistributions created a lower-entropy landscape by concentrating particular soils and soil transformations in specific landscape settings. This result is contrary to studies showing a trend toward increasing pedological complexity at comparable spatial scales, but over much longer time scales. These results point to the importance of temporal scale, and to the fact that environmental complexity is influenced by factors other than the number of different landscape units present. 相似文献
9.
Techniques for modeling spatial variability in the loss, gain, and storage of total nitrogen (N) in an agricultural landscape were developed utilizing a geographic information system (GIS) based on the Map Analysis Package (C.D. Tomlin, Yale University). The study area is a well-monitored portion (upper 114.9 km2) of the Little River Watershed, located near Tifton, Georgia, U.S.A. On the basis of measured N in the soil and vegetation, and the gains and losses of N by stream discharge, fertilizer, precipitation, N fixation, crop harvest, etc., it was possible to quantify and map source and sink regions of Total N, and to calculate a mass balance of N for an entire year. Results indicate massive flows of N, especially from anthropogenic sources. However, for the watershed as a whole, the N is virtually in balance with a small accretion occurring mostly in the riparian zones. Stream discharge of total N indicates that this landscape is well-buffered against excessive losses of N despite the large agricultural inputs. 相似文献
10.
The Hierarchical Patch Dynamics Paradigm provides a conceptual framework for linking pattern, process and scale in ecosystems,
but there have been few attempts to test this theory because most ecological studies focus on only one spatial scale, or are
limited in their temporal scope. Here I use palaeoecological techniques (analysis of fossil pollen and stable carbon isotopes)
to compare vegetation heterogeneity in an east African savanna at three spatial scales, over hundreds of years. The data show
that patterns of vegetation change are different at the three spatial scales of observation, and suggest that different ecological
processes dominate tree abundance at micro, local and landscape scales. Interactions between plants, disturbance (e.g., by
fire and herbivores), climate and soil type may influence tree density at differing spatial and temporal scales. This hierarchical
explanation of savanna vegetation dynamics could inform future biodiversity conservation and management in savannas.
This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
11.
Green Veining: Landscape Determinants of Biodiversity in European Agricultural Landscapes 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
Many semi-natural landscape elements, the so-called green veining, are disappearing from the intensively used agricultural
landscapes of Europe. In order to develop or restore biodiversity in these networks, it is necessary to quantify the relation
between biodiversity and amount, spatial arrangement and management intensity of green veining elements. In this review, we
investigate whether biodiversity increases with the amount of green veining in an agricultural landscape following the species–area
relationship, and whether a certain level of biodiversity can be reached at lower densities of green veining if green veining
elements are better connected (higher spatial connectivity) or if they are managed less intensively (lower management intensity).
We reviewed studies on aboveground biodiversity in green veining structures in 39 scientific papers on field and experimental
studies within Europe. More of these studies focussed on management intensity than on amount or spatial configuration of green
veining. Also more studies focussed on the spatial scale of individual landscape elements than on the farm or landscape scale,
which may be caused by the large number of studies focussing on plant or invertebrate species. Species living at larger spatial
scales, e.g. mammals and birds were not often studied at the level of green veining elements as they also use agricultural
fields as part of their habitat. We could not verify the species–area relation for green veining, nor the effect of amount,
spatial configuration or management intensity on this relation, because only few studies quantified the found effects and
no studies were found on the effect of management intensity or spatial configuration on the species–area curve in green veining.
We addressed the most important challenges for future field and model research in order to fill the identified gaps in knowledge. 相似文献
12.
Mira Kattwinkel Barbara Strauss Robert Biedermann Michael Kleyer 《Landscape Ecology》2009,24(7):929-941
The importance of the spatial as well as the temporal structure of habitat patches for urban biodiversity has been recognised,
but rarely quantified. In dynamic environments the rate of habitat destruction and recreation (i.e. the landscape turnover
rate), the minimum amount of potential habitat, its spatial configuration as well as the environmental conditions determining
habitat quality are crucial factors for species occurrence. We analysed species responses to environmental parameters and
to the spatio-temporal configuration of urban brownfield habitats in a multi-species approach (37 plant and 43 insect species).
Species presence/absence data and soil parameters, site age, vegetation structure and landscape context were recorded by random
stratified sampling at 133 study plots in industrial areas in the city of Bremen (Germany). Based on the field data, we predicted
species occurrences by species distribution models using a multi-model inference approach. Predicted species communities were
driven by successional age both at the scale of a single building lot and at the landscape scale. Minimum average succession
time of brownfield habitats required to support all and especially regionally rare species depended on the proportion of available
open space; the larger the potential habitat area the faster the acceptable turnover. Most plant, grasshopper, and leafhopper
species modelled could be maintained at an intermediate turnover rate (mean age of 10–15 years) and a proportion of open sites
of at least 40%. Our modelling approach provides the opportunity of inferring optimal spatio-temporal landscape configurations
for urban conservation management from patch scale species-environment relationships. The results indicate that urban planning
should incorporate land use dynamics into the management of urban biodiversity.
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. 相似文献
13.
Lindsey Gillson 《Landscape Ecology》2005,19(8):883-894
The Hierarchical Patch Dynamics Paradigm provides a conceptual framework for linking pattern, process and scale in ecosystems,
but there have been few attempts to test this theory because most ecological studies focus on only one spatial scale, or are
limited in their temporal scope. Here I use palaeoecological techniques (analysis of fossil pollen and stable carbon isotopes)
to compare vegetation heterogeneity in an east African savanna at three spatial scales, over hundreds of years. The data show
that patterns of vegetation change are different at the three spatial scales of observation, and suggest that different ecological
processes dominate tree abundance at micro, local and landscape scales. Interactions between plants, disturbance (e.g., by
fire and herbivores), climate and soil type may influence tree density at differing spatial and temporal scales. This hierarchical
explanation of savanna vegetation dynamics could inform future biodiversity conservation and management in savannas.
This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
14.
Solène Croci Alain Butet Anita Georges Rahim Aguejdad Philippe Clergeau 《Landscape Ecology》2008,23(10):1171-1186
To evaluate the importance of urban woodlands to serve as potential sites for biodiversity conservation, we analysed bird,
carabid beetle and small mammal community responses to urbanisation at different spatial scales. We analysed the relationships
between the variations of the structure (species richness S, diversity H′ and dominance D) of animal communities of woodlands
distributed along a rural–urban gradient, and the variations along this same gradient of (1) the vegetation within woodlands,
(2) the landscape at 100 m and (3) 600 m around the woodlands. We identified the spatial scales whose variations along the
gradient most affected each animal community structure, and characterised community responses to these variations. Our results
showed that urbanisation affected taxa differently according to their dispersal ability. Carabid beetles, less mobile, seem
to be sensitive to increasing fragmentation and built surfaces from periurban to town centre which could make their movement
within the urban landscape difficult. Birds, mobile species, seem to be more sensitive to variations of the vegetation structure
within woodlands from periurban to town centre that could affect their capacity to maintain in habitat patches. Although our
study did not allow relating the small mammal community structure to urbanisation, it suggests that this taxa is sensitive
to urban local disturbances. A relevant management scale of woodlands can be specified for each taxa conservation. Urban woodlands
accommodate over 50% of the species present in periurban woodlands, and effective management could enhance this number. Woodlands
seem to be a good choice for promoting biodiversity conservation in towns. 相似文献
15.
The multiple functions of urban soils secure the supply of ecosystem services to the urban population, but they are seldom taken into account in current urban planning. The purpose of this study is to highlight the multifunctionality of the soils of urban green spaces and to assess the influence of different types of urban green (i.e. parks and gardens, roadside green and agricultural fields) on the joint supply of soil-based ecosystem services. In a case study area in the city of Carpi (NE Italy), we focused on a set of soil functions underpinning ecosystem services and on possible synergies and trade-offs between them. We surveyed and sampled 19 urban green areas to assess the following soil functions: biological fertility, potential habitat for organisms, water regulation and storage, soil buffering capacity and carbon stock. Results showed differences and trends in the bundles of ecosystem services provided by the soils of urban green areas, highlighting the relevance of soil disturbance and vegetation cover density in affecting soil functions. For biological indicators, results showed a negative significant correlation to CaCO3 content, which is associated with the degree of soil disturbance, and that soils in urban areas do not always have compromised soil fauna and may provide the same level of biological quality as agricultural soils or forests. 相似文献
16.
Context
Cultural ecosystem services, many of which depend on biodiversity, are recognized as important but seldom quantified biophysically across landscapes. Furthermore, many ecosystem service models are static, and the supply of cultural ecosystem services may be misrepresented if seasonal shifts in biotic communities are ignored.Objectives
We modeled landscape dynamics of wildflower blooms in a temperate montane landscape to determine (1) how floral resources (wildflower species richness, abundance, timing, and presence of charismatic species) changed over the growing season, (2) how projected wildflower viewing hotspots varied over space and time, and (3) how spatial shifts in floral resources affected potential public access to wildflower viewing.Methods
Data were collected at 63 sites across a rural-to-urban gradient in the Southern Appalachian Mountains (USA). Generalized linear models were used to identify factors affecting floral resources at two temporal scales. Floral resources were projected across the landscape and hotspots of wildflower viewing were quantified using overlay analysis.Results
Floral resources were affected by topoedaphic conditions, climate, and surrounding building density and changed seasonally. Seasonal models revealed locational shifts in ecosystem service hotspots, which changed the proportion of hotspots accessible to the public and identified wildflower-viewing opportunities unnoticed by static models.Conclusion
Relationships between landscape gradients, biodiversity, and ecosystem service supply varied seasonally, and our models identified cultural ecosystem service hotspots otherwise obscured by simple proxies. Landscape models of biodiversity-based cultural ecosystem services should include seasonal dynamics of biotic communities to avoid under- or over-emphasizing the importance of particular locations in ecosystem service assessments.17.
Agricultural intensification is a major cause for biodiversity loss. It occurs at field scales through increased inputs and
outputs, and at landscape scales through landscape simplification. Agri-environment schemes (AES) of the European Common Agricultural
Policy (CAP) aim at reducing biodiversity loss by promoting extensification of agricultural practises mostly at field scales.
We present a conceptual model for the relationship between landscape complexity and ecological effectiveness of AES based
on (a) non-linear relationships between landscape complexity and abundance and diversity at field scales and (b) four possible
interactive scenarios between landscape- and field scale effects on abundance and diversity. We then evaluated whether and
how effectiveness of AES interacted with landscape-scale effects of intensification along a landscape complexity gradient
established in central Spain. Pairs of cereal fields with and without AES but with the same landscape context were selected
in three regions differing in landscape complexity. Effectiveness of AES was measured as differences between paired fields
in species richness and abundance of five target groups (birds, grasshoppers and crickets, spiders, bees and plants). Landscape
metrics were measured in 500–m radius circular plots around field centres. Positive, negative and no effects of landscape
complexity on effectiveness of AES were found, suggesting that effects of complexity on effectiveness of AES changes from
positive to negative along gradients of landscape complexity. Effectiveness of AES for improving biodiversity was then constrained
by landscape. Compulsory measures aimed at enhancing or maintaining landscape complexity would enhance the effectiveness of
AES for preserving biodiversity in farmed landscapes.
For M. Díaz: New address from October 2007: Instituto de Recursos Naturales, Centro de Ciencias Medioambientales–CSIC, Serrano
115, Madrid E-28006, Spain 相似文献
18.
Lowland ombrotrophic (rain-fed) peatlands are a declining ecological resource in Europe. Peatlands display characteristic
patterns in vegetation and surface topography, linked to ecological function, hydrology, biodiversity and carbon sequestration.
Laser scanning provides a means of precisely measuring vegetation pattern in peatlands, and thus holds promise as a tool for
monitoring peatland condition. Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) was used for measurement of vegetation pattern along an eco-hydrological
gradient at a UK peatland (Wedholme Flow, Cumbria) at fine grain sizes (<1 cm spatial resolution over 10 m spatial extent).
Seven sites were investigated—each showed varying water table and ecological characteristics. TLS data were analysed using
semi-variogram analysis which enabled the scale of spatial dependence in vegetation structures to be measured. In addition
ecological, hydrological and positional surveys were conducted to elucidate interpretation of spatial patterns. Results show
that TLS was able to rapidly measure vegetation patterns associated with eco-hydrological condition classes. Intact sites
with hummock-hollow topography showed an isotropic pattern with a grain size or length-scale of 1 m or less (indicated by
semi-variogram range). Degraded sites with high shrub cover showed increased sill variance values at larger range distances—typically
around 3–4 m. The work presented shows the advantages of TLS methodologies for rapid measurement of 3-D vegetation canopy
structure and surface microtopography, at fine spatial scales, in short vegetation. The paper considers how these approaches
may be extended to monitoring peatland structure over larger spatial extents from airborne LiDAR systems. 相似文献
19.
Understanding which environmental conditions are critical for species survival is a critical, ongoing question in ecology. These conditions can range from climate, at the broadest scale, through to elevation and other local landscape conditions, to fine scale landscape patterns of land cover and use. Remote sensing is an ideal technology to monitor and assess changes in these environmental conditions at a variety of spatial and temporal scales, with many studies focusing on the physiological state of vegetation derived from time series of satellite measurements. As vegetation occurs within specific climatic zones, over certain soil, terrain, and land cover types, it can be difficult to decipher the influence of the underlying role of climate, topography, soil, and land cover on the observed vegetation signal. In this article, we specifically addressed this problem by asking the question: what is the relative impact and importance of these different scales of environmental drivers on the temporal and spatial patterns observed on a habitat index derived from remotely sensed data? To find the solution, we utilized a SPOT VEGETATION-normalized difference vegetation index time series of Europe to create a remote-sensing-derived habitat index, which incorporates aspects of productivity, seasonality, and cover. We then compared the observed temporal and spatial variations in the index to a pan-Europe terrestrial classification system, which explicitly incorporates variations in climate, terrain, soil parent material, land cover, and use. Results indicated that the most accurate level of discrimination from the habitat index was at the broadest level of the hierarchy, climate, while the poorest degree of discrimination was associated with elevation. In terms of similarity on the index across time and space, we found that arable and forest cover classes were more similar across elevation and parent materials than across other land cover types within them. Analyzing the remote-sensing index, at multiple scales, provides significant insights into the drivers of satellite-derived greenness indices, as well as highlights the benefit and cautions associated with linking satellite-derived indirect indicators to species distribution modeling and biodiversity. 相似文献
20.