Small mammals and retention islands: An experimental study of animal response to alternative logging practices

The integration of forest biodiversity conservation with wood production is a key part of ecologically sustainable forest management. This can be a particular challenge at the stand-level when high-intensity silvicultural systems like clearfelling are employed. Alternative logging practices to clearfelling that result in partial stand retention are being widely promoted in many parts of the world. We present new findings from a replicated block experiment designed to examine the responses of small terrestrial mammals to the retention of islands of forest within otherwise clearfelled harvest units. Our experiment was conducted in the Mountain Ash (Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell) forests of the Central Highlands of Victoria, south-eastern Australia. We quantified the effects of four treatments on small terrestrial mammal abundance: (1) an uncut (‘control’) area of forest; (2) a 1.5 ha retained island within an otherwise clearfelled area; (3) three 0.5 ha retained ‘islands’ within an otherwise clearfelled area; and (4) a traditionally clearfelled area of forest, over the different stages of harvesting operations from pre-cut to post-cut to post-burn.     

A century of logging and forestry in a reindeer herding area in northern Sweden

Boreal forest ecosystems are generally highly sensitive to logging and other forestry activities. Thus, commercial forestry has had major effects on the forests and landscape structure in northern Sweden since the middle of the 19th Century, when it rapidly extended across the region. Lichens (which constitute up to 80% of reindeer forage in winter and early spring) have often been amongst the most severely affected ecosystem components. The overall aim of the present study was to analyze how forestry has influenced the potential supply of ground-growing lichens as winter forage for the reindeer in this region over the past ca. 100 years. For this purpose, we analysed changes in forest and stand structure in Scots pine-dominated (Pinus sylvestris L.) reindeer wintering areas in the southern part of the county Norrbotten (covering ca. 58,000 ha) using detailed historical forest inventories and management plans. We found that the amount of the forest types considered potentially good pasture (mainly middle-aged and old pine forests) decreased during the first part of the 20th Century. However, the quality of grazing grounds was improved by forestry during this time mainly because selective logging made the forests more open which benefits lichen growth. During the last part of the 20th century forestry impaired the quality of grazing grounds in several ways, e.g. by clear-cutting and intensified use of various silvicultural measures. We conclude that ca. 30–50% of the winter grazing grounds have been lost in the study area because of intensive forest management during the last century. The spatially precise historical information about the affects of forestry on lichen pasture provided in this study can be used to direct forest management which will facilitate and promote reindeer herding in the future.     

A lack of large-diameter logs and snags characterises dead wood patterns in Irish forests

Dead wood is an important component of forest ecosystems and volumes vary depending on forest age, management intensity and productivity. This is the first large-scale study to quantify dead wood in Irish forests and to compare them to forests in other locations. We measured the volume and size distribution of logs, the density and size distribution of snags and the volume of dead wood contained in stumps in Oak (Quercus spp.) and Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) forests and in Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) plantations throughout Ireland. We also assigned each log, snag and stump to one of three decay classes (intact, part-rotted and well-rotted). We found no significant difference in log volume between any of the forest types. The majority (>90%) of logs were less than 20 cm in diameter, and large logs (>40 cm diameter) were scarce. We found a relatively high density of snags in all forest types but, as in the case of logs, over 90% of snags were <20 cm DBH and large snags (>40 cm DBH) were rare. The volume of dead wood contained in stumps was significantly higher in plantations than in Oak or Ash forests as a result of thinning and harvesting. Most logs and snags were moderately decayed but, in plantations, most stumps were intact. Log volume and the size of logs and snags were considerably lower than in old-growth forests in other regions. These patterns may reflect historical use of Irish forests for coppice and timber production. Management for biodiversity should aim to accelerate dead wood accumulation to increase the frequency of large-diameter logs and snags. Although management seeking to replicate the dead wood volumes of old-growth forests is ideal, it may be unrealistic in the short term.     

Carbon and nitrogen in forest soils: Potential indicators for sustainable management of eucalypt forests in south-eastern Australia

Soil organic matter (SOM) has been adopted as an indicator of soil fertility based on the rationale that SOM contributes significantly to soil physical, chemical, and biological properties that affect vital ecosystem processes of forests in Australia. A study was undertaken to evaluate the utility of SOM as an indicator of SFM at two long-term experimental sites in native eucalypt forests, including Silvertop Ash (E. sieberi L. Johnson) and Mountain Ash (E. regnans F. Muell.) in Victoria. This study examines the relative contributions made by various sources of carbon in soil profiles (0–30 cm) of forest soils, viz. mineral soil (<2 mm), plant residues, charcoal (>2 mm), and rock fragments (>2 mm). The long-term changes in these fractions in response to management-induced soil physical disturbance and fire (unburnt, moderate and high intensity) were evaluated. After 10 years, carbon levels in the fine soil fraction (soil <2 mm including fine charcoal) were similar across the range of fire disturbance classes in Mountain Ash forest (20–25 kg/m²) and Silvertop Ash forest (7–8 kg/m²). Likewise differences in carbon associated with other fractions, viz. microbial biomass, labile carbon, plant residues and rock fragments were comparatively small and could not be attributed to fire disturbance. Burning increased the charcoal carbon fraction from 5 to 23 kg/m² in Mountain Ash forest and from 1 to 3 kg/m² in Silvertop Ash forest. Taking into account, the percentage area affected by fire, increases in total soil carbon in these forests were estimated at 25 and 7 t/ha, respectively.

The effects of physical disturbance of soils were examined at one site in Mountain Ash forest where soil cultivation was used as site preparation rather than the standard practice of burning of logging residues. Total carbon in soil profiles decreased from 29 to 21 kg/m² where soil disturbance was severe, i.e. topsoil removed and subsoil disturbed. This was mainly due to a decrease in charcoal carbon from 6.8 to 1.7 kg/m² but severe soil disturbance also increased the amount of carbon associated with rock fragments from 1.6 to 3.5 kg/m².

Management-induced fire increased the coarse charcoal content of soil profiles substantially, thus increasing total carbon content as well as the proportion of recalcitrant carbon in SOM. In contrast, there was little change in the carbon content of the fine soil fraction including the labile and biologically active fractions indicating that these SOM fractions most relevant to ecosystem processes showed little long-term impact from soil disturbance and fire. Conventional sampling of the fine soil fraction (<2 mm) only represented between 50% and 70% of total carbon in the soil profiles. In contrast, total nitrogen in this fraction represented between 75% and 90% of the nitrogen in soil profiles and was less affected by changes in the contributions of N made by coarse fractions. Monitoring of soil N rather than C as an indicator of soil fertility and SFM may be more appropriate for forest soils with significant charcoal content.     

Stand development of Norway spruce dominated subalpine forests of the Swiss Alps

In densely populated regions, forests can help protect communities and infrastructures from natural hazards such as avalanches and rockfall. To promote the protective function, substantial efforts are made to actively manage forest stands. In 2009 alone the Swiss government invested more than 60 million sfr for the maintenance of protection forests. However, to date there has been no comprehensive evaluation of how the structural development of actively managed stands differs from that of passively managed stands in the Alps. Over the past century the structure of Norway-spruce dominated subalpine forests of the Swiss Alps has been changing and it is not clear how these changes affect the potential protective function of these forests, as well as other forest functions such as wildlife habitat. Furthermore, it is not clear how stand dynamics and structural changes differ between stands that are actively managed and those that are passively managed, and thus to what degree active efforts of forest management are contributing to stands that actually have a greater protective function than passively managed forests.In this study, we analyzed the dynamics of subalpine forests using time series of forest inventory data and examined the influence of active vs. passive management, exposition, distance to treeline, elevation and slope steepness on stand structure and dynamics. We analyzed data from 395 plots in dense, subalpine, spruce-dominated forests in the Swiss Alps. Data were collected during three distinct periods (1983-1985, 1993-1995 and 2004-2006) as part of the Swiss National Forest Inventory (NFI). Using regression trees and multivariate statistics, we investigated which factors have the most important influence on tree growth and stand development.Overall, forest density increased significantly over the last 20 years and the predominance of dense forests increased at higher elevations. However, forest density has not increased in actively managed forests over the past 10 years. In passively managed stands, density was higher on south-facing slopes than on north-facing slopes. The volume and density of dead wood has increased over the last 20 years in both actively managed and passively managed forests. Active management over the last 20 years has maintained forest conditions that adequately maintain stands’ protection functions in the Swiss Alps. However, stand development, especially increasing density, in the passively managed stands of the Swiss Alps suggests that the majority of passively managed stands also provide adequate protective functions against rock and avalanche hazards without the high costs of active management.     

Plant communities, species diversity, richness, and regeneration of a traditionally managed coastal forest, Kenya

The Kenyan coastal forests make up one of the World 25 Biodiversity Hotspots. They consist of over 140 fragments (the majority with areas less than 0.5 km²) of the once extensive Zanzibar-Inhambane lowland moist forest. The over 60 known Mijikenda sacred Kaya forests and groves scattered along the coastal hinterland form the greater part of this ecosystem. The forests are of biological and cultural significance, and this has been recognized nationally and internationally, with some now listed as World Heritage Sites. The forests are protected by councils of Kaya elders who regulate use of their resources. Increasing human population and subsequent rise in demand for forest products and land for settlement has put a strain on these relic forests. Farm encroachment and extraction of forest products in different Kaya forests have affected the vegetation ecology at varying levels. This study investigated the spatial species distribution, association and regeneration potential of commonly utilized plants in one of these traditionally managed ecosystems. A modified nested plot method was used to collect data in the field.Using TWINSPAN multivariate, and indicator species analysis, two plant communities (Asteranthe and Bridelia) and an undifferentiated vegetation type were identified. Species association in Asteranthe consisted largely of forest dependant species, with a significant presence of woody climbers. It was comprised of two sub-communities namely Manilkara and Scorodophloeos. In contrast the second plant community, Bridelia, was dominated by light demanding species. It comprised one sub-community (Catunaregam) and a seral stage (Keetia). The species diversity and richness was higher in the Asteranthe community compared to Bridelia. Some of the forest species commonly utilized by the local people were observed to regenerate both in open and closed forest habitats while others had seedling recruitment confined to closed forest.Despite some coastal forests showing physiognomic similarity, detailed study shows intra-variation linked to topography, exposition, type and intensity of human perturbation both currently and in the distant past. Clearly, vegetation patterns of coastal forests of eastern Africa change at fairly short intervals.Recruitment of forest specialists is likely to decline if closed forests are opened up by farm encroachment, however their less specialized counterparts can pioneer in re-colonization of disturbed sites if conservation is strengthened. There is need to invigorate traditional management systems of forests with cultural significance by recognizing and giving increased legal mandates to the local custodians.     

秦岭地区的竹类资源

我国是世界上竹类植物最丰富的国家。查清竹类资源,搞好竹林类型的划分,对于进一步了解竹种与竹种、竹种与环境之间的关系,合理发展和利用竹类资源有着重要的意义。本文根据作者在秦岭地区37个县所采到的80余份标本及野外观察到的情况加以讨论,为进一步发展、利用北方竹林资源提供科学依据。     

A refined view on the “Green lie”: Forest structure and composition succeeding early twentieth century selective logging in SE Norway

Abstract

Logging exceeded growth and timber trees were sparse in Norwegian forests in the early 1900s. Still, the forest canopy was lush green and characterised by large tree-crowns. This situation was referred to as the “Green lie” and was advocated by foresters throughout Scandinavia as an argument in favour of forestry practices based on clear-felling. Here we examine effects of past selective loggings on forest structure and composition in a spruce forest landscape using dendroecology and historical records. Our results show that forests that were selectively logged up to the early 1900s could be structurally heterogeneous with multi-layered canopies, varying degree of openness and continuous presence of old trees across different spatial scales. Because the past forests were not clear-felled, a diverse forest structure in terms of tree species composition and age and diameter distribution was maintained over time, which could enable forest-dwelling species to persist during the early phase following the loggings in the past. This is in sharp contrast to the situation in most modern managed forest landscapes in Scandinavia. A better understanding of the link between loggings in the past- and present-day forest structure and diversity will contribute to rewarding discussions on forestry methods for the future.     

Changes in forest resource utilization and forest landscapes in the southern Abukuma Mountains,Japan during the twentieth century

Land use and landscape changes, which have much effect on local biodiversity, are driven primarily by socioeconomic forces. Understanding these forces is important for preservation of current biodiversity. In this study, we clarified the socioeconomic forces that have brought about changes in the forest landscape around the Ogawa Forest Reserve in the southern Abukuma Mountains, Japan, by interviewing local residents and reviewing local historical documents. Furthermore, we reconstructed past forest landscapes and quantified the changes that have occurred from the beginning of the twentieth century until the present by use of old land-use maps and past aerial photographs. The use of forest resources has dramatically changed during the past hundred years, and it can be divided into three periods corresponding to the level of economic development. The main landscape has changed significantly from one mainly composed of expansive grasslands and broad-leaved forests into a mosaic of fragmented secondary forests and coniferous plantations. These landscape changes reflect shifts in both the use of forest resources by local residents and the management of the national forests. Clarifying temporal–spatial landscape changes by understanding the historical relationship between humans and the landscape provides useful information for optimizing conservation and management planning.     

The effects of cultivation history on forest recovery in fallows in the Eastern Arc Mountain, Tanzania

Using fallows under shifting cultivation systems as a case study, we examined the effects of landuse history (cultivation duration and cropping strategies) on rate and extent of forest recovery. Cultivation duration and five cropping strategies were investigated post facto, indirectly, and with regards to their effect on the structure (basal area, BA and stand complexity, C_HCI) and diversity (Fisher's α) of forests in fallows. Data were generated from vegetation surveys conducted in the Nguru Mountain block of the Eastern Arc Mountains, Tanzania. The surveys were conducted in primary forests, ongoing farms, and fallows that had been out of production for 1-31 years (N = 109, plot size = 0.1 ha). Recovery patterns between lowland (300-800 m) and submontane (800-1600 m) elevations varied substantially. BA and C_HCI recovery levels were consistently higher in submontane fallows. None of the fallows had attained BA and C_HCI levels equivalent to those of primary forests; α in lowland fallows, however, was 124% of primary forest levels. Forest recovery was limited to fallows whose cultivation period was ≤16 years. Recovery was fastest and highest in fallows located within a dense primary/old growth forest matrix. The findings provide a more thorough understanding of how local farming practices affect forest recovery. Improving the recovery outcomes of fallows that are located outside the old growth forest matrix will require (a) more strategic inclusion of remnant trees, (b) drastically shorter cultivation periods, and (c) human intervention through assisted regeneration.     

Population dynamics and management of Amazon tidal floodplain forests: Links to the past, present and future

Although tidal floodplain forests represent the oldest commercial logging frontier in the Amazon, tree demography analyses are lacking. Consequently, the accurate evaluation of impacts of past use and the development of ecologically sound forest management has lagged. To address that gap, we combine matrix model methods with data from interviews with tidal floodplain smallholders regarding land use and ecological knowledge. Here we examine the population dynamics of 8 common tidal floodplain species and explore the link between species population ecology and past, present, and future timber use.Despite the generally high timber stocks due to the dominance of Mora paraensis, these tidal floodplain forests offer challenges to management similar to those seen in tropical forests elsewhere, including low recruitment and species-specific tree growth rates, population densities and size distributions. Furthermore, species population ecology and survey results indicate that the long legacy of forest use in the tidal floodplain forests will influence the future of forest use and management, negatively impacting some species (e.g., Virola surinamensis) while likely benefiting others (e.g., M. paraensis). The observed diameter distributions of species least harvested in the past (e.g., M. paraensis, Licania heteromorpha) follow those derived from stable stage distributions. For other historically harvested species (e.g., Carapa guianensis, V. surinamensis), a larger number of harvest-sized trees for most species would be expected under unlogged conditions, a result corroborated by survey results indicating that maximum log size of long-used timber species has decreased over the past decades.While timber extraction in the Amazon Estuary has endured for centuries, our results suggest long-term timber use does not necessarily entail sustainability; a long history of timber harvesting can also indicate a gradual process of resource depletion as preferred species are sequentially exhausted. If current practices are left unchanged, the prospects for long-term management are likely to decrease further as the densities of preferred high-value species (C. guianensis, V. surinamensis, P. filipes) fall to levels that make management economically unattractive.     

Distribution modelling of Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) invasion in the Cumberland Plateau and Mountain Region, USA

Predicting the potential distribution of invasive plants within a specific region is pivotal to planning effective management but is challenged by attempting to model expanding populations that are rarely at equilibrium with their environment. We adopt an ensemble modelling approach to assess the potential distribution of Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), a vine invasive to forests of the Cumberland Plateau and Mountain Region in the southeast of USA. The influence of disturbance, spatial and temporal heterogeneity and other landscape characteristics were assessed by creating regional level models based on occurrence records from the United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) database. Logistic regression and maximum entropy (MaxEnt) models were assessed independently and evaluated as predictive tools to test the value of presence/absence and presence only data in predicting species distributions. Ensemble models were also developed that combined the predictions of the two modelling approaches to obtain a more robust prediction. While logistic and MaxEnt models were similar in their predictive ability and dominant input variables, the ensemble approach derived the best fitting model overall. The regional distribution of Japanese honeysuckle was influenced greatly by environmental conditions such as elevation, slope, and temperature with anthropogenic activity having significant, though lesser, influence. The ensemble models predict that Japanese honeysuckle has nearly reached its potential distribution. However, given the critical role of minimum temperature on Japanese honeysuckle distribution, future occupancy at higher elevations is likely to increase since January temperatures for this region are predicted to rise by 1-4 °C over the next 100 years. The models also give some indication of the likely effect of land cover change on its distribution. Japanese honeysuckle tended to be associated with a high component of farming or low component of forest within the local neighbourhood. This suggests disturbed forest and/or high fragmentation has a higher invasion potential and given past trends and expected continued population growth this disturbance and fragmentation will only increase. The models can be integrated into forest management decision support systems and assist in the development of long term management plans, integrating the impact of potential climate and land cover change scenarios.     

BGC-model parameters for tree species growing in central European forests

During the last centuries forest management has changed the structure and species composition of central European forests. One option to assess forest management and how management impacts may affect forest development over time is the use of biogeochemical ecosystem simulation models. They integrate key ecosystem processes and have proven to be an appropriate diagnostic tool. If we consider that in the past, forest management has strongly affected the species distribution and the structure of central European forests, existing biogeochemical models need to integrate species-specific parameters so that they can adequately address forest management practices such as species changes, stand density etc. The purpose of this paper is to introduce species-specific parameters for one such model, Biome-BGC, for the following tree species as observed in central European forests: Fagus sylvatica, Quercus robur/petraea, Larix decidua, Pinus sylvestris, Pinus cembra as well as two sets of parameters for Picea abies growing at low and high elevations. We first evaluate and test model results obtained with parameters from the literature and single research plots. This evaluation procedure gives our final species-specific parameters that are then used in the model. Next we validate the quality of the model predictions using these parameters versus field observations covering the growing range of a given species by comparing standing tree volume, volume increment, soil carbon and soil nitrogen on 145 independent plots. Our results demonstrate that the species-specific parameters yielded consistent and unbiased predictions.     

朝鲜森林培育、保护与管理政策

朝鲜多山的地形条件决定了其森林资源在朝鲜经济建设、社会发展、民生福祉等方面的重要作用。自2015年以来,作为国家战略,朝鲜大力开展了“山林复原战斗”,目标是在10年之内把所有山野改造成树木茂密的“宝物山”和“黄金山”,使“全国树林化、园林化”。文中介绍了朝鲜森林资源、林业发展阶段及其政策法规、保护林和自然保护区、林业管理机构、林产品生产与贸易以及林业教育与科研等现状,总结了朝鲜森林培育、保护与管理的政策特点,并探讨在林业领域的中朝合作、朝韩合作以及国际组织合作的前景,以期为我国林业等相关领域对朝合作提供借鉴与帮助。朝鲜林业发展实践表明,朝鲜已经形成了较为完善的政策目标体系、法规管理制度和组织保障机制,相关领域的国际合作也在不断深化。     

Effects of wood-ash on the tree growth,vegetation and substrate quality of a drained mire: a case study

The effects of wood-ash fertilisation on tree stands, soil characteristics and ground vegetation were studied on a drained pine mire in Finland (64°51′N, 26°04′E, 62 m a.s.l.). The original site type was a treeless, mesotrophic Sphagnum papillosum fen. The site was drained in 1933 and the wood-ash fertilisation experiment was started in 1947. The treatments were: (i) unfertilised, (ii) wood-ash 8 t ha⁻¹, and (iii) wood-ash 16 t ha⁻¹.Drainage and ash application had radical and long-lasting consequences on the biological activity on the site and the vegetation compartments studied. The understorey vegetation had been profoundly affected by the ash with almost complete transformation of the species and other life forms. Even 50 years after the ash treatment the changes in vegetation/site type and the tree stand were clearly visible. On the unfertilised plot, the biomass of ground vegetation consisted mostly of mosses and dwarf shrubs, but on the ash-treated plots it consisted mostly of herbs and grasses typical of upland forests.Ash treatment had promoted stem volume growth of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) substantially and for a long time. The total wood production on the ash plots during 1947–1994 was 13 and 17 times over that of the control plot. Unfertilised pine trees suffered from P and K deficiency throughout the study period. The concentrations of some plant nutrients (P, K) decreased during the past years on Ash8. No nutrient shortage afflicting the tree stand was observed on Ash16 during the study period.Ash application has also led to increased concentration of nutrients in the peat. A sizeable proportion of the mineral nutrients applied were still in the 0–20 cm peat layer. On the ash-treated plots the amount of soil nitrogen (0–20 cm) was 18 and 29 times and the amount of soil phosphorus 9 and 13 times over the amount bound by the tree stand and the ground vegetation (Ash8 and Ash16, respectively). The stock of potassium was generally small in the surface peat—only 60–90% of the amount of potassium bound in the tree stand and the ground vegetation.It was concluded that wood-ash had powerfully influenced the biological processes in surface peat. The decomposition of cellulose was significantly accelerated by both ash treatments. Ash fertilisation also increased the emissions of CO₂. The intensified decomposition rate in the litter, vegetation and peat explained to a large extent the accelerated growth of the Scots pine stands studied.     

Silviculture for old-growth attributes

Silviculture to maintain old-growth forest attributes appears to be an oxymoron since the late developmental phases of forest dynamics, described by the term old-growth, represent forests that have not experienced human intervention or timber removal for a long time. In the past, silvicultural systems applied to old-growth aimed to convert it into simplified, more productive regrowth forests substantially different in structure and composition. Now it is recognised that the maintenance of biodiversity associated with structural and functional complexity of late forest development successional stages cannot rely solely on old-growth forests in reserves. Therefore, in managed forests, silvicultural systems able to develop or maintain old-growth forest attributes are being sought. The degree to which old-growth attributes are maintained or developed is called “old-growthness”. In this paper, we discuss silvicultural approaches that promote or maintain structural attributes of old-growth forests at the forest stand level in (a) current old-growth forests managed for timber production to retain structural elements, (b) current old-growth forests requiring regular, minor disturbances to maintain their structure, and (c) regrowth and secondary forests to restore old-growth structural attributes. While the functions of different elements of forest structure, such as coarse woody debris, large veteran trees, etc., have been described in principle, our knowledge about the quantity and distribution, in time and space, of these elements required to meet certain management objectives is rather limited for most ecosystems. The risks and operational constraints associated with managing for structural attributes create further complexity, which cannot be addressed adequately through the use of traditional silvicultural approaches. Silvicultural systems used in the retention and restoration of old-growthness can, and need, to employ a variety of approaches for managing spatial and temporal structural complexity. We present examples of silvicultural options that have been applied in creative experiments and forestry practice over the last two decades. However, these largely comprise only short-term responses, which are often accompanied by increased risks and disturbance. Much research and monitoring is required still to develop and optimise new silvicultural systems for old-growthness for a wide variety of forest ecosystem types.     

Are gullies best for biodiversity? An empirical examination of Australian wet forest types

A relatively common observation in forest environments has been that gullies support higher species richness and individual abundance than elsewhere in the landscape. We completed a detailed case study of birds to contrast species richness and assemblage composition between gullies and other parts of the topography of landscapes in three closely related and spatially adjacent wet ash forest types – those dominated by Mountain Ash (Eucalyptus regnans), Alpine Ash (E. delegatensis) or Shining Gum (E. nitens) – in the Central Highlands of Victoria, south-eastern Australia. We also quantified the influence of a wide range of other measures of stand structure and plant species composition on the bird assemblage and on individual bird species.     

Improving the establishment submodel of a forest patch model to assess the long-term protective effect of mountain forests

Simulation models such as forest patch models can be used to forecast the development of forest structural attributes over time. However, predictions of such models with respect to the impact of forest dynamics on the long-term protective effect of mountain forests may be of limited accuracy where tree regeneration is simulated with little detail. For this reason, we improved the establishment submodel of the ForClim forest patch model by implementing a more detailed representation of tree regeneration. Our refined submodel included canopy shading and ungulate browsing, two important constraints to sapling growth in mountain forests. To compare the old and the new establishment submodel of ForClim, we simulated the successional dynamics of the Stotzigwald protection forest in the Swiss Alps over a 60-year period. This forest provides protection for an important traffic route, but currently contains an alarmingly low density of tree regeneration. The comparison yielded a significantly longer regeneration period for the new model version, bringing the simulations into closer agreement with the known slow stand dynamics of mountain forests. In addition, the new model version was applied to forecast the future ability of the Stotzigwald forest to buffer the valley below from rockfall disturbance. Two scenarios were simulated: (1) canopy shading but no browsing impact, and (2) canopy shading and high browsing impact. The simulated stand structures were then compared to stand structure targets for rockfall protection, in order to assess their long-term protective effects. Under both scenarios, the initial sparse level of tree regeneration affected the long-term protective effect of the forest, which considerably declined during the first 40 years. In the complete absence of browsing, the density of small trees increased slightly after 60 years, raising hope for an eventual recovery of the protective effect. In the scenario that included browsing, however, the density of small trees remained at very low levels. With our improved establishment submodel, we provide an enhanced tool for studying the impacts of structural dynamics on the long-term protective effect of mountain forests. For certain purposes, it is important that predictive models of forest dynamics adequately represent critical processes for tree regeneration, such as sapling responses to low light levels and high browsing pressure.