Statistical mapping of tree species over Europe

In order to map the spatial distribution of twenty tree species groups over Europe at 1 km × 1 km resolution, the ICP-Forest Level-I plot data were extended with the National Forest Inventory (NFI) plot data of eighteen countries. The NFI grids have a much smaller spacing than the ICP grid. In areas with NFI plot data, the proportions of the land area covered by the tree species were mapped by compositional kriging. Outside these areas, these proportions were mapped with a multinomial multiple logistic regression model. A soil map, a biogeographical map and bioindicators derived from temperature and precipitation data were used as predictors. Both methods ensure that the predicted proportions are in the interval [0,1] and sum to 1. The regression predictions were iteratively scaled to the National Forest Inventory statistics and the Forest map of Europe. The predicted proportions for the twenty tree species were validated by the Bhattacharryya distance between predicted and observed proportions at 230 plot data separated from the calibration data. Besides, the map with the predicted dominant species was validated by computing the error matrix. The median Bhattacharryya distance in the subarea with NFI plot data was 1.712, whereas in the subarea with ICP-Level-I data, this was 2.131. The scaling did not significantly decrease the Bhattacharryya distance. The estimated overall accuracy of this map was 43%. In areas with NFI plot data, overall accuracy was 57%, outside these areas 33%. This gain was mainly attributable to the much denser plot data, less to the prediction method.     

Satellite-based stand-wise forest cover type mapping using a spatially adaptive classification approach

Due to high variation in forest communities, forest structure and the fragmentation of the forested area in Central Europe, satellite-based forest inventory methods have to meet particularly high-quality requirements. This study presents an innovative method to combine official forest inventory information at stand level with multidate satellite imagery using a spatially adaptive classification approach for producing wall-to-wall forest cover maps of important tree species and management classes across multiple ownership regions in a heterogeneous low mountain range in Germany. The classification approach was applied to a 5,200-km² area (about 2,080?km² of forest land, mostly mixed forests) located in the Eifel mountain range in Central Europe. In comparison with conventional classifiers, our results demonstrate a significant increase in classification accuracy in the order of 12%. The method was tested with ASTER images but holds the potential to be used for regular state forest inventories based on standard and novel earth observation data supplied for instance from the SPOT-5 and RapidEye sensors.     

Mapping and spatial uncertainty analysis of forest vegetation carbon by combining national forest inventory data and satellite images

Forests play an important role in carbon sinks and mitigation of atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide and greenhouse effect. Given that sample plots used for collection of forest carbon observations are often much smaller than the map units of forest carbon at regional, national, and global scales, scientists are currently experiencing two challenges. The first challenge is to produce reliable maps of forest carbon using the data from inconsistent sizes of plots and image pixels. Also, because estimates of forest carbon normally contain uncertainties, the second challenge is to accurately model propagation of uncertainties from input data to output results. In this study, a methodology for mapping and analyzing spatial uncertainty of forest carbon estimates was developed to address these challenges. The methodological framework consisted of two methods. The first one was up-scaling method that combined and scaled up existing national forest inventory plot data and satellite images from smaller sample plots and image pixels to larger map units. The second one was spatial uncertainty analysis and error budget method that entailed modeling propagated uncertainties through a geostatistical mapping system. A case study using 46 permanent national forest inventory plots from Wu-Yuan County, Jiangxi, China, was undertaken to test this methodology. The results showed that this method reproduced not only the spatial distribution of forest carbon but also the spatial pattern of variances of its estimates and was able to quantify the contributions of uncertainties from the field plot data and satellite images to the uncertainties of forest carbon estimates. Thus, this study, to some extent, overcame the gaps that currently exist in the generation and assessment of forest carbon estimation maps. Moreover, the results showed that in this case study, the variation of the band ratio defined as (TM2 + TM3 + TM5)/TM7 contributed more uncertainties to the estimates of forest carbon than the variation of the plot data. In addition, we also found out that the product of the input plot forest carbon variance and the band ratio variance, implying the interaction between these two variables, reduced the uncertainties of the forest carbon estimates.     

Evaluation of Information on Wild Berry and Mushroom Markets in European Countries

The income-generating dimension of berry and mushroom picking is important in many European countries or regions of countries, predominantly for rural livelihoods. Due to the role and economic potential in the utilization of non-wood forest products (NWFPs), there is a need, and also an increasing interest in, monitoring their market volume and values both at national and international levels. There is a wealth of information from different sources at the national level, but at the international level there is a need to harmonize the information. It is a major challenge for international data collection efforts to balance the need for harmonization of statistics without losing interesting information. This paper presents and analyses statistics on the quantity and value of two groups of marketed NWFPs: (1) mushrooms and truffles, and (2) fruits, berries and edible nuts. The statistics came from the State of Europe’s Forests 2007 report and its country reports. Our paper describes the shortcomings of the statistics and identifies potential explanations for the limitations. The results from this study reveal that the usability of data on marketed mushrooms and berries varies a lot between countries. In general, the data are incomplete and not comparable among countries. Another challenge is the consistency of information on production, trade and consumption flows. Based on a Finnish example, balance sheets can be used to control the consistency and derive missing sub-components of trade flows. A regional case study of Nordic and Baltic countries and the Russian Federation illustrates potential from national household and operator surveys for complementary information.     

基于森林清查资料的中国森林植被碳储量

利用第七次全国森林资源连续清查数据,以回归模型估计法作为乔木林生物量的主要计算方法,以树种含碳率作为生物量转换为碳储量的系数,从单木归并到样地,从样地加权平均至省级区域,估算乔木林碳储量;以加权平均转换系数估算疏林地、散生木和四旁树的碳储量,以模型法估算竹林、灌木林的碳储量。结果表明:中国森林植被碳储量主要集中在西南和东北两大区;乔木林是中国森林植被碳储量的主体;人工林碳储量在中国乔木林碳储量中比例超过15%;阔叶树的碳储量和碳密度均大于针叶树。     

Susceptibility of northern British Columbia forests to spruce budworm defoliation

Stand susceptibility to defoliation by spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana (Clem.), was examined in the Fort Nelson area of the Prince George Forest Region of British Columbia. In a retrospective study, defoliation maps of the study area were overlaid onto British Columbia Ministry of Forests cover type maps using a geographic information system. Analysis of the combined data identified forest characteristics associated with increased susceptibility to defoliation by spruce budworm. These were stands where the leading species was white spruce (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss), or where spruce was associated with aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx. and P. balsamifera L.) in mixed stands. Susceptibility to defoliation also was related to site quality, level of crown closure and stand age. Spruce stands on medium quality sites (site index 15 to 25 m, at reference breast height age 50 years) were more susceptible than stands on both poor- and high-quality sites. When spruce was mixed with aspen, stands on higher quality sites were more susceptible to budworm attack than poor sites. Open stands, where crown closure was <50%, were more susceptible to attack by spruce budworm than closed canopy stands. Older stands (120–199 years) were more susceptible to budworm attack than younger stands (40–110 years). In defoliated plots monitored for 6 years, tree mortality and top-kill reached a maximum of 30.4 and 47.2%, respectively. The losses varied with level of defoliation and were reduced by applications of the biological pesticide Bacillus thuringiensis.     

Defoliation by processionary moth significantly reduces tree growth: a quantitative review

? Context

Forests are important carbon sinks, but increasing temperatures may favour increases in insect populations, resulting in greater damage to trees. This, in turn, would lead to lower levels of carbon sequestration, intensifying global warming.

? Aim

It is therefore important to predict the impact of insect defoliation on tree growth accurately. The main insect defoliators of conifers in Southern Europe and North Africa are pine and cedar processionary moths (Lepidoptera, Thaumetopoeidae).

? Method

We conducted a meta-analysis based on 45 study cases, to estimate the effect of processionary moth defoliation on tree growth.

? Result

Overall, processionary moth defoliation had a significant impact on tree growth, regardless of the tree and moth species considered. Mean relative tree growth loss increased with the rate of defoliation levelling out at ca. 50?%; it was significantly larger for young than for old trees.

? Conclusion

These results suggest that estimates of processionary moth defoliation could easily be incorporated into tree growth models, to predict the effect of processionary moth outbreaks on carbon sequestration in Mediterranean forests.     

Structure of pollarded oak forest in relation to aspect in Northern Zagros,Iran

We analyzed the structure of pollarded oak forest and biometric indices of pollarded oak species in relation to aspect in northern Zagros forests, western Iran. A number of 319 circular plots (0.1 ha) were established using a systematic random method over the study area. In each plot, for all trees (diameter at breast height ≥5 cm) diameter was measured and tree species was recorded. Total height, trunk height, and major and minor diameter axis of the crown of two trees in each plot (nearest tree to the center of the plot and the largest tree in term of diameter) were measured. As the dispersion of slope and altitude classes in the study area were identical, the effect of these factors was assumed to be constant. To evaluate the effect of aspect on biometric indices of oak trees a comparison was used for each oak species separately. The results indicated that the forest species composition differed statistically significant in main aspects except for easterly and westerly aspects (P < 0.01). The diameter of similar oak trees was significantly different except for Lebanon oak in northerly and southerly and Gall oak in easterly and westerly aspects (P < 0.01), but there was no significant difference between the total height and crown area of similar oak species in different aspects. Differences in diameter, height, and crown area distributions showed a significant difference in main aspects. The basal area and tree density in northerly and southerly aspects were significantly different (P < 0.05).     

热带森林与次生林经营研究

文章综述了世界热带地区的森林资源分布、基本类型、主要特征,以及世界次生林的经营现状和主要经营方式。这些经营方式包括建立自然保护区、生态公益林经营、"采掘主义"、限制采伐和伐后更新、"砍三留七"法、"扶持"式育林法、"抑制"式育林法、整体培育法、专门培育法、带状皆伐法、开发欠知名树种、自然更新和封山育林。同时提出了森林分类经营,即按照经营的主要目的将其划分为商品林、公益林和多功能林等基本类型的方法。此外,分析了热带次生林存在的问题,并提出解决这些问题的措施。     

结合自适应阈值与峰值的LiDAR林分平均高反演方法研究

随着激光雷达获取的点云密度不断增加,提取样地尺度的林分平均高成为可能。但样地尺度林分平均高的提取精度与树种之间的关系尚不明确,急需一种能适应各种树种的林分平均高提取方法。以广西国有高峰林场为例,采用机载LiDAR点云数据生成的冠层高度模型(Canopy height model,CHM),结合地面实测的201个样地数据,提出了一种结合自适应阈值与峰值的林分平均高提取算法,并分析了树种对提取精度的影响。结果表明:1)不同树种的林分平均高提取精度存在差异,杉木精度最高,而桉树和其他阔叶树种精度次之;2)自适应阈值结合峰值的算法能够较好提取林分平均高(R²=0.75,RMSE=3.11m,rRMSE=22.07%),并且对于不同的树种都有较强的稳健性;3)阔叶树种和针叶树种对不同的提取方法存在敏感性差异。研究提取的林分平均高可为森林蓄积量与生物量反演研究提供依据和参考。     

EU-wide maps of growing stock and above-ground biomass in forests based on remote sensing and field measurements

The overall objective of this study was to combine national forest inventory data and remotely sensed data to produce pan-European maps on growing stock and above-ground woody biomass for the two species groups “broadleaves” and “conifers”. An automatic up-scaling approach making use of satellite remote sensing data and field measurement data was applied for EU-wide mapping of growing stock and above-ground biomass in forests. The approach is based on sampling and allows the direct combination of data with different measurement units such as forest inventory plot data and satellite remote sensing data. For the classification, data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) were used. Comprehensive field measurement data from national forest inventories for 98,979 locations from 16 countries were used for which tree species and growing stock estimates were available. The classification results were evaluated by comparison with regional estimates derived independently from the classification from national forest inventories. The validation at the regional level shows a high correlation between the classification results and the field based estimates with correlation coefficient r = 0.96 for coniferous, r = 0.94 for broadleaved and r = 0.97 for total growing stock per hectare. The mean absolute error of the estimations is 25 m³/ha for coniferous, 20 m³/ha for broadleaved and 25 m³/ha for total growing stock per hectare. Biomass conversion and expansion factors were applied to convert the growing stock classification results to carbon stock in above-ground biomass. As results of the classification, coniferous and broadleaved growing stock as well as carbon stock of the above-ground biomass is mapped on a wall-to-wall basis with a spatial resolution of 500 m × 500 m per grid cell. The mapped area is 5 million km², of which 2 million km² are forests, and covers the whole European Union, the EFTA countries, the Balkans, Belarus, the Ukraine, Moldova, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey.     

Effects of land reclamation practices on the productivity of young trembling aspen and white spruce on a reclaimed oil sands mining site in northern Alberta

New Forests - Identifying the main drivers of tree height growth on reclaimed oil sands sites of northern Alberta can provide useful information on what can be done to shorten the recovery time of...     

Predicting plant species richness in a managed forest

This paper describes an attempt to predict ground flora species richness under various forest management scenarios. The approach is based on a geographic information system (GIS) and uses three standard map layers of topography, soils and stands to derive environmental gradients of light, nutrients, water and disturbance. A simple floristic survey provides the data necessary to relate plant distribution with environmental variables. The potential distribution of 60 understorey plant species is modelled based on the four derived gradients. The sum of these maps, i.e., the total potential diversity, is used as a proxy for the prediction of actual species richness. The model predicts high species diversity along roads and in relatively disturbed areas and low species diversity in stands with coniferous species and in stands of old, deciduous trees (mainly beech). The overall predicted pattern of species diversity corresponds well with observations made in the forests. However, the model explained only a fraction of the variation in the data set on the plot level. Dispersal effects, demographic stochasticity and biological factors are the probable causes of this. The combination of GIS-based spatial operations and fuzzy cognitive mapping proved to be an efficient way of producing gradient maps based on standard forestry maps and expert knowledge.     

Biomass determination of fuelwood trees and bushes of Botswana, Southern Africa

In order to establish a relation between tree fresh biomass and tree dimensions, samples of 14 tree species indigenous to Botswana were measured, cut and weighed. The relation best suited to the indirect estimation of total tree fresh weight was the regression between tree fresh weight and stem basal area at ankle height (5–10 cm above ground level). The regression curves of the 14 tree species overlay in a narrow band. On the basis of the measured data points of all 14 tree species a single regression curve is calculated: the combi-line. The combi-line satisfactorily describes the relation between stem basal area and fresh weight for most trees. A comparison of the combi-line with some tree species from elsewhere in Africa, India and Europe shows that the combi-line also describes, to a large extent, the basal area-fresh weight relation for those trees.     

National assessment of the evolution of forest fragmentation in Mexico

This paper presents assessments of the fragmentation of the temperate and tropical forests in Mexico at the national level for two dates 1993 and 2002. The study was based on land use and vegetation cover data sets scale 1:250,000. Two broad forest types (Temperate Forests and Tropical Forests) and five more specific forest types (Broadleaf Forests, and Coniferous Forests; Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests, Tropical Sub-evergreen Forests, and Tropical Evergreen Forests) were defined to conduct the analyses. FragStats 3.3 was used to estimate nine metrics of the spatial pattern of the forests for each forest type and date considered. The results indicate that the land cover transitions that have occurred between 1993 and 2002 have resulted in more isolated forest patches with simpler shapes in both the Temperate and Tropical Forests. The remaining Tropical Forest patches have become smaller and more numerous. In contrast, the remaining Temperate Forest patches are fewer and on average larger. Of the more specific forest types defined in this study, the Broadleaf Forests have the highest indicators of fragmentation. However these forests are usually embedded or adjacent to Coniferous Forests. Of more concern for conservation purposes are the high values of fragmentation metrics found for the Tropical Evergreen Forests and Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests, because these forest types are usually surrounded by non-forest land covers or anthropogenic land uses.     

吉林蛟河针阔混交林主要树种树高-胸径模型

[目的]建立吉林蛟河针阔混交林主要树种不同竞争强度个体的树高-胸径关系模型,并探讨竞争强度对树高-胸径关系的影响。[方法]采用蛟河42 hm2成熟林固定样地中4个树种的树高-胸径数据,用Chapman-Richards、Logistic、Korf和Weibull模型这4种应用广泛的经验模型进行树高-胸径曲线拟合,选出适合的最佳模型。[结果]表明:(1)4个树种的12组个体中有7个组的最佳模型形式是Weibull模型,4个组的最佳模型形式为Chapman-Richards模型,只有1组为Korf模型。(2)同一树种的低竞争强度个体和高竞争强度个体的最优模型形式不同。(3)用独立样本数据对最优模型进行检验,模型表现良好。[结论]Weibull模型能够很好地拟合4个树种各竞争强度的树高-胸径关系,能够适用于本地区针阔混交林的树高-胸径模拟,并且竞争强度会影响树高-胸径关系,将各竞争强度个体分别进行树高-胸径拟合可以提高模型预测能力。     

Relationship between carbon stocks and tree species diversity in a humid Guinean savanna landscape in northern Sierra Leone

Global sustainable development goals include reducing greenhouse gas emissions from land-use change and maintaining biodiversity. Many studies have examined carbon stocks and tree species diversity, but few have studied the humid Guinean savanna ecosystem. This study focuses on a humid savanna landscape in northern Sierra Leone, aiming to assess carbon stocks and tree species diversity and compare their relationships in different vegetation types. We surveyed 160 sample plots (0.1 ha) in the field for tree species, aboveground carbon (AGC) and soil organic carbon (SOC). In total, 90 tree species were identified in the field. Gmelina arborea, an exotic tree species common in the foothills of the Kuru Hills Forest Reserve, and Combretum glutinosum, Pterocarpus erinaceous and Terminaria glaucescens, which are typical savanna trees, were the most common species. At landscape level, the mean AGC stock was 29.4 Mg C ha^?1 (SD 21.3) and mean topsoil (0–20 cm depth) SOC stock was 42.2 Mg C ha^?1 (SD 20.6). Mean tree species richness and Shannon index per plot were 7 (SD 4) and 1.6 (SD 0.6), respectively. Forests and woodlands had significantly higher mean AGC and tree species richness than bushland, wooded grassland or cropland (p < 0.05). In the forest and bushland, a small number of large diameter trees covered a large portion of the total AGC stocks. Furthermore, a moderate linear correlation was observed between AGC and tree species richness (r = 0.475, p < 0.001) and AGC and Shannon index (r = 0.375, p < 0.05). The correlation between AGC and SOC was weak (r = 0.17, p < 0.05). The results emphasise the role of forests and woodlands and large diameter trees in retaining AGC stocks and tree species diversity in the savanna ecosystem.     

接种菌根菌对桉树生长的影响

以尾叶桉和巨尾桉为材料 ,1993和 1994年在广东省开平市镇海林场建立了 2个外生菌根菌接种试验 ,均采用裂区设计 ,4次重复 ,每试验均 2个树种为主区 ,菌根菌处理为副区。试验 1有 8个外生菌根菌处理 ,每处理小区 6株或 9株 ,试验 2有 3个外生菌根菌处理 ,每处理小区 9株。造林后 ,定期观测树高、地径或胸径。试验结果表明 :树种内菌根菌效应分析发现 ,巨尾桉所有指标在菌根菌间存在显著差异 ,尾叶桉只是某些指标在菌根菌间有显著差异 ,表明两树种对相同菌根菌处理的反应不同 ;树种联合方差分析表明 ,试验 1中所有指标在区组间、树种间、菌根菌处理间均有显著差异 ,从方差分量看 ,树种效应 >树种×菌根菌互作效应或菌根菌效应 ;试验 2中树高指标在树种间和菌根菌处理间均存在显著差异 ,而 2 4个月时胸径指标在树种间无显著差异 ,但胸径在菌根菌处理间有极显著差异 ,树高指标的方差分量为树种效应 >树种×菌根菌互作效应或菌根菌效应。胸径的方差分量为菌根菌效应 >树种×菌根菌互作效应 >树种效应。分析表明树种×菌根菌互作效应存在时间上的不稳定性 ;同时 ,讨论了外生菌根菌应用中树种因素的重要性。     

雅安市主要造林树种苗木质量的分级研究

对2006年雅安各县苗圃主要造林树种苗木进行调查,以地径(D)和苗高(H)作为质量指标,采用逐步聚类分析对苗木质量进行分级,结合生产实际探讨了雅安市主要造林树种苗木标准。其中有些树种的苗木分级标准为首次研究。标准中各指标均大于现行国家标准,能较好地反映实际生产水平,为育苗生产和制定地方标准提供了参考。     

增城区白水寨景区红花荷群落特征

基于样方调查,结合区系分析、重要值分析和物种多样性分析方法对白水寨景区红花荷(Rhodoleia championii)群落特征进行研究.结果显示,在1500 m2的样方中,共记录维管束植物65种,隶属于38科55属,植物区系以热带亚热带分布为主;群落层次可分为乔木层、灌木层和草本层,乔木层作为主要构成层次,物种最为丰富;红花荷在群落中处于主导地位,种质资源保存完好.