Dynamics of large wood in an eastern U.S. mountain stream

Large wood (LW) is an important feature in many streams in northeastern North America, yet the dynamics (recruitment, movement, and export) of large wood remain largely undocumented for streams in this region. In this study we quantify the dynamics of LW in 400 m of a second-order, high gradient, boulder-dominated stream in the eastern Adirondack Mountains, NY. Characteristics and location of all LW (>1-m length, >10-cm diameter) in the 400-m study reach were initially recorded and pieces were individually tagged in November 2000. Subsequent surveys were conducted in late summer/fall of 2001, 2003, and 2004. Twenty-six% of the 112 pieces of LW initially tagged moved 5.0 m or more during the 4 years of this study. Mobile wood was, on average, shorter than non-mobile wood. Nearly all mobile wood was shorter than the 8.0-m bankfull width of the stream. From 2000 to 2004, 2.16 m³ (0.54 m³ 100 m⁻¹; 43 pieces) of LW entered the study reach and 0.7 m³ (0.18 m³ 100 m⁻¹; 13 pieces) left the stream. Retention of wood in debris dams was key to reducing potential export. For this stream, located within a second-growth mixed northern hardwood riparian forest that is approaching maturity, the net wood accumulation rate was estimated as ranging from 0.09 to 0.15 m³ 100 m⁻¹ year⁻¹. Our data support previous observations that LW length strongly influences its potential to move in high gradient streams, though debris dams can reduce LW movement rates and movement distances for wood of all sizes.     

Windthrow and recruitment of large woody debris in riparian stands

To document the impacts of windthrow in riparian leave strips and identify the components needed for small stream large woody debris (LWD) recruitment modeling, we monitored nine small streams at a temperate rainforest site in coastal British Columbia. This study was a component of a larger integrated study of forest management impacts on small streams. A series of small clearcuts were harvested in 1998 in a 70-year-old second growth stand that had regenerated naturally following logging and wildfire. Three cutblocks each were assigned to 10 m and 30 m buffer width treatments and three areas were assigned as unharvested controls. Seven years after the 1998 logging, all logs greater than 10 cm diameter that spanned at least part of stream channel width were measured. A total of 179 logs were recorded. Post-harvest windthrow was higher in the 10 m buffer treatment, while competition-related standing tree mortality was higher in the controls. The major windthrow events had occurred in the first and second years after logging of adjacent stands. There was no significant difference in the number of spanning and in-stream logs in the 10 m, 30 m buffer and control treatments. More than 90% of the LWD was in the 10–30 cm diameter classes. The majority of logs were oriented perpendicular to the stream channel. At the time of measurement, the majority of these trees were still suspended above the stream channel, indicating that the recruitment of logs into the stream channel is a long-term process. Time to recruitment into the channel is dependent on log and valley geometry, log size, species, and log condition prior to toppling. Log height above stream was negatively correlated with log decay class and valley width. Log length was negatively correlated with state of decay, and many windthrown logs were in an advanced state of decay before they entered the stream.     

Tree type and forest management effects on the structure of stream wood following wildfires

Wildfires are an increasingly common disturbance influencing wood recruitment to streams, and thereby affecting their physical and biological condition. Mediterranean countries such as Portugal, where more than 25% of the land area has burned since 1990, are ideal areas to study impacts of wildfire effects on streams. We evaluated the physical structure of 2206 downed wood pieces (DWP) across 27 first- to third-order streams in central Portugal, all of which had experienced recent wildfires. The streams flowed through monospecific upland forests of Eucalyptus, Maritime pines, or Cork oaks and were fringed by a mixture of riparian tree species. DWP structure differed between tree types and between burned and unburned pieces. Post-fire timber-production forests (Maritime pines and Eucalyptus) contributed a higher quantity of thinner, longer and straighter DWP to streams than Cork oak stands. Pieces from Maritime pines had more rootwads and branches than DWP from the other tree types. Pieces from Cork oak and riparian species generally had a bent form, were shorter and had no rootwads. Burned DWP in streams were often from riparian trees. Relative to unburned DWP, the burned DWP occurred more frequently, were larger and straighter, had branches less often, and were more decayed. With more complex branches, rootwads, and a larger diameter, inputs from burned Maritime pine forests are more likely to change stream hydraulics and habitat complexity, relative to inputs from Eucalyptus forests with their simpler structure. This study shows that, less than a decade after wildfires, structure of downed wood in and near streams is strongly influenced by wildfire, but also still reflects intrinsic species characteristics and respective silviculture practices, even after the effects of fire have been accounted for. Under an anticipated shift in landscape cover with higher shrubland proportions and more mixing of Maritime pine and Eucalyptus forests, our results suggest that instream large wood will become scarcer and more structurally homogeneous.     

Long-term dynamics of large woody debris in a managed boreal forest stream

Little is known about how past forest management in Sweden influenced the quantity and quality of large woody debris (LWD) in streams. The present study provides information of the long-term dynamics of LWD in a reach of a boreal stream intersecting a managed forest. Dendrochronological methods were used to reconstruct mortality years of the pieces of LWD and the general history of fire and cuttings of the surrounding riparian forest. Today, spruce dominates among the living trees, whereas the LWD is dominated by birch in the forest and by pine in the stream. Fire frequency prior to active fire suppression was similar to values reported from boreal forests. Pine trees were more abundant in the riparian forest before selective logging operations and active fire suppression began in the 1800s. Many of the pieces of LWD found in the stream today died more than 200 years ago and derived from a cohort of pines that generated in the early 1600s. Pine LWD in stream channels is highly resistant to decomposition and can reside for more than 300 years. A substantial amount of the LWD found today in managed forest streams in boreal Sweden most likely derives from the time before extensive human influence and is likely to decrease further in the future. Management of riparian forests to ascertain future supply of long-lived LWD in streams should target to increase the proportion of pine trees.     

The choice of definition has a large effect on reported quantities of dead wood in boreal forest

A survey was conducted to assess the impact of the choice of definition on reported quantities of dead wood in Swedish forests, which to more than 90% are located in the boreal zone. The data collection was made on a subsample of the permanent plots of the Swedish national forest inventory. The objects included were standing dead trees and snags down to 5-cm diameter at breast height, dead lying stems and branches down to a threshold diameter of 1 cm and stumps down to a threshold diameter of 5-cm at normal stump height. Standing trees, snags and stumps were inventoried on 10-m radius circular plots while the downed objects were inventoried using both circular plots and line intersect sampling; thin objects (diameter 1–5 cm) were assessed only through line intersect sampling. The results showed that the estimated volume of dead wood was as high as 25 m³ ha^?1 when all components were included. With the standard Swedish definition, the corresponding estimate was only 10.9 m³ ha^?1, or 43% of the total value. Since definitions of dead wood vary greatly between countries we conclude that great caution must be exercised when figures are compared in connection with international reporting. For example, adding stumps to the Swedish definition would increase the amounts of dead wood from 10.9 to 15.7 m³ ha^?1, i.e. with 44%.     

Changes in quantitative patterns of dead wood in maritime pine plantations over time

Although the volume of dead wood is commonly acknowledged as an indicator of biodiversity in sustainable forest management schemes, only few data are available for plantation forests. To evaluate the volume and qualify the diversity of woody debris along a chronosequence of maritime pine plantations, we sampled downed woody debris, snags and stumps in 143 stands of different ages. To test the hypothesis that the pattern of dead wood accumulation mainly results from silvicultural operations, we developed a predictive model. It combined an empirical growth model evaluating the amount of dead wood produced by successive thinnings with a decay function that estimated the loss of dead wood with time.     

大兴安岭林区粗木质残体管理评析

通过对林区粗木质残体界定、研究方法、生态功能的介绍,探讨粗木质残体在森林生态系统中的作用。指出大兴安岭地区粗木质残体研究不够深入,并针对目前国内外粗木质残体研究现状总结出应加强对大兴安岭林区粗木质残体的研究与管理,并加强森林经营与林业生态研究的结合,使我国对粗木质残体研究更具普遍性,从而得出更具科学性的结论为森林经营管理提供参考。     

温度和元素含量对流溪河2个树种粗木质残体呼吸季节动态的影响

[目的]研究粗木质残体(CWD)呼吸释放CO_2速率(R_(CWD))的年季节动态特征与温度及元素含量的关系,为CWD呼吸的碳通量计算和碳库模型建立提供参考数据。[方法]采用红外气体分析法(Li-Cor 8100)对马尾松(Pinus massoniana Lamb.)和石栎(Lithocarpus glaber(Thunb.) Nakai)的CWD进行连续1年的呼吸测定,同时测定CWD初始元素含量,分析温度及元素含量对R_(CWD)年季节动态的影响。[结果]表明:R_(CWD)的动态特征与温度变化趋势一致,表现出明显的单峰曲线格局;在所测定的温度范围(14. 5～28. 5℃)内,R_(CWD)与温度呈显著正相关(p 0. 01),温度驱动着R_(CWD)动态变化的64. 0%86. 2%,温度可预测马尾松R_(CWD)的64. 0%75. 6%,可预测石栎R_(CWD)的69. 3%86. 2%,马尾松的R_(CWD)总体小于石栎的;马尾松的温度敏感系数Q10值(3. 05)显著低于石栎的Q10值(5. 05)。针叶树种马尾松CWD的初始C含量显著高于阔叶树种石栎,而初始N、P含量显著低于石栎; R_(CWD)与初始C含量、C/N和C/P呈负相关,相关系数R2分别是0. 383、0. 590和0. 546,与初始N含量成显著正相关,相关系数R2为0. 416,与初始P含量和N/P正相关但不显著,初始元素含量可以解释R_(CWD)变化的38. 3%59. 0%。[结论]温度和初始元素含量对R_(CWD)均有较好的解释作用,温度和初始C/N能解释R_(CWD)变化的50%以上,温度和初始元素含量显著影响CWD的呼吸或分解的整个动态过程。     

Diversity and spatio-temporal dynamics of dead wood in a temperate near-natural beech forest (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Fagus sylvatica</Emphasis>)

The diversity, spatial patterns and temporal dynamics of dead wood were examined within the near-natural beech forests (Fagus sylvatica) of Serrahn (North-eastern Germany). Data were collected in an 8 ha sample plot and in two permanent plots (0.36 and 0.25 ha) that had been established at the end of the 1960s. The mean volume of dead wood was 94 m³ ha⁻¹, amounting to 14% of the total volume of all trees. The dead wood displayed a large variation in dead wood type, tree size and decay class. Standing dead wood accounted for about one-third of the total dead wood volume. The densities of standing dead trees were about 10% of the densities of the living trees over a wide range of diameters. The overall spatial distribution of dead trees exhibited a random pattern. Among the different dead wood types, standing entire dead trees and uprooted trees deviated from this pattern by displaying a significantly aggregated pattern. In the permanent plots a high mortality of overstorey trees was observed (1.3% year⁻¹) and the average amount of dead wood increased greatly from 2.9 to 111.6 m³ ha⁻¹ over the 35-year observation period. The near-natural beech forests of Serrahn have experienced a long period of low human interference. Nevertheless, our results suggest that the structure and dynamics of dead wood are strongly affected by the last major disturbance events that took place at the end of the Middle Ages. Information about the forest history is therefore a basic requirement when interpreting the results obtained in near-natural forests.     

Spatial distribution and influence of large woody debris in an old-growth forest river system, New Zealand

A field survey was undertaken to determine the quantity, spatial distribution and influence of large woody debris (LWD) in a fifth-order river system in old-growth forest in New Zealand. LWD attributes were assessed at 25 sites distributed in the headwaters and along the main stem of the Whirinaki River system (73 km²). LWD volume, number of pieces, piece length and piece size, were positively correlated with bankfull width, whereas the number of pieces/unit area, LWD/unit area, number of pieces suspended across the channel and LWD influence on channel morphology, were negatively correlated. Pieces influencing channel morphology were larger, longer and more stable than average. We identified four key zones in the river system based on LWD spatial distribution patterns and influence on habitat complexity. Zonal boundaries occurred where there were changes in the transport capacity, fluvial processes, channel width and geomorphic structure of the channel. The results of this study highlight the need to understand the characteristics, spatial distribution patterns and influence of LWD at the catchment level when undertaking protective, management or rehabilitation programmes in forested river ecosystems.     

Forest carbon storage in the northeastern United States: Net effects of harvesting frequency,post-harvest retention,and wood products

Temperate forests are an important carbon sink, yet there is debate regarding the net effect of forest management practices on carbon storage. Few studies have investigated the effects of different silvicultural systems on forest carbon stocks, and the relative strength of in situ forest carbon versus wood products pools remains in question. Our research describes (1) the impact of harvesting frequency and proportion of post-harvest structural retention on carbon storage in northern hardwood-conifer forests, and (2) tests the significance of including harvested wood products in carbon accounting at the stand scale. We stratified Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) plots to control for environmental, forest structural and compositional variables, resulting in 32 FIA plots distributed throughout the northeastern U.S. We used the USDA Forest Service's Forest Vegetation Simulator to project stand development over a 160 year period under nine different forest management scenarios. Simulated treatments represented a gradient of increasing structural retention and decreasing harvesting frequencies, including a “no harvest” scenario. The simulations incorporated carbon flux between aboveground forest biomass (dead and live pools) and harvested wood products. Mean carbon storage over the simulation period was calculated for each silvicultural scenario. We investigated tradeoffs among scenarios using a factorial treatment design and two-way ANOVA. Mean carbon sequestration was significantly (α = 0.05) greater for “no management” compared to any of the active management scenarios. Of the harvest treatments, those favoring high levels of structural retention and decreased harvesting frequency stored the greatest amounts of carbon. Classification and regression tree analysis showed that management scenario was the strongest predictor of total carbon storage, though site-specific variables were important secondary predictors. In order to isolate the effect of in situ forest carbon storage and harvested wood products, we did not include the emissions benefits associated with substituting wood fiber for other construction materials or energy sources. Modeling results from this study show that harvesting frequency and structural retention significantly affect mean carbon storage. Our results illustrate the importance of both post-harvest forest structure and harvesting frequency in carbon storage, and are valuable to land owners interested in managing forests for carbon sequestration.     

森林粗木质残体的贮量和碳库及其影响因素

粗木质残体(CWD)是森林生态系统重要的组成要素,由于定量研究某特定区域CWD的贮量和碳量的工作量相当大,需要长期的研究才能获得可信的数据,因此有关全球森林生态系统CWD的贮量和碳量仍不太清楚.本文根据国内外研究结果综述全球不同森林中CWD的贮量和碳库情况.结果表明:温带针叶林CWD贮量最高(30～200 t·hm-2),而阔叶林最低(8～50 t·hm-2);全球森林CWD碳贮量范围大致为75～114或157 Pg.各森林CWD贮量值变化大,因林龄、CWD分解阶段和人类经营活动(如疏伐、皆伐和控制火烧)而异.今后需更广泛地开展森林CWD调查,以更深刻理解CWD与林分结构、树种特性及干扰的关系.此外,为了更准确地评价CWD在森林生态系统中的生态价值,建议在更大尺度上对全球各类森林的CWD贮量和碳库进行长期的研究.     

Using drill resistance to quantify the density in coarse woody debris of Norway spruce

To evaluate the mass of coarse woody debris (CWD), it is necessary to quantify its density. Drill resistance measurements are introduced as a approach to estimate the density of CWD in different stages of decay. Dead logs of Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] from a Central European mountainous site were used as a test system to compare the new method with conventional predictors of wood density such as fast quantitative field estimates (e.g., knife probe) and classification of decay classes based on a set of qualitative traits and quantitative estimates. The model containing only drill resistance as a predictor explained 65% of the variation in wood density and was markedly better than models containing one or more of several conventional predictors. However, we show that the relationship between drill resistance and gravimetric wood density relationship is sensitive to the decay status. Therefore, the best model combines drill resistance and decay class (adj. R2 = 0.732). An additional experiment showed that drill resistance is also sensitive to the moisture state (fresh vs. oven-dry) of the sample. The major potential of the method lies in its non-destructive nature which allows repeated sampling in long-term ecosystem studies or in protected areas where destructive sampling is prohibited. The limitations of the method are discussed and recommendations for applications are given.     

Influence of fire intensity on structure and composition of jack pine stands in the boreal forest of Quebec: Live trees,understory vegetation and dead wood dynamics

North American jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) stands are generally characterized by an even-aged structure resulting from high intensity fires (HIF). However, non-lethal fires of moderate intensity (MIF), which leave behind surviving trees, have also been reported. The objectives of this study were two-fold: (1) assess the concurrent dynamics of live trees, understory vegetation and different types of coarse woody debris (CWD) during succession after HIF; and (2) document how MIF affects stand structure component dynamics compared to HIF. Stands affected by both HIF and MIF were selected. Tree characteristics and age structure, understory biomass, and CWD volume were assessed. Our results suggest that the structural succession of jack pine stands following HIF comprises three stages: young stands (<48 years), premature and mature stands (58–100 years) and old stands (>118 years). Canopy openness and jack pine density significantly decreased with time since HIF, while black spruce density and CWD volume significantly increased. The highest structural diversity was measured in the premature and mature stands. Compared to HIF, MIF increased mean jack pine basal area, decreased average stand density, delayed the replacement of jack pine by black spruce replacement in the canopy, decreased CWD volume, and significantly increased bryophytes mass. MIF increased the diversity of live trees and generally decreased CWD structural diversity. The study confirms the diversity of natural disturbance magnitude and successional processes thereby initiated. Thereafter, it appeared to be relevant for adjustment of disturbance emulating forest-management systems.     

Biomass conversion factors (density and carbon concentration) by decay classes for dead wood of Pinus sylvestris, Picea abies and Betula spp. in boreal forests of Sweden

For estimating the amount of carbon (C) in dead wood, conversion factors from raw volume per decay class to dry weight were developed using three different classification systems for the species Norway spruce (Picea abies L. Karst), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and birch (Betula pendula Roth and B. pubescens Ehrh) in Sweden. Also the C concentration in dead wood (dry weight) was studied. About 2500 discs were collected from logs in managed forests located on 289 temporary National Forest Inventory (NFI) sample plots and in 11 strips located in preserved forests. The conversion factors were based on an extensive data compilation with a wide representation of different site-, stand-, species- and dead wood properties and were assumed to represent the population of fallen dead wood in Sweden. The density decreased significantly by decay class and the range in density for decay classes was widest for the NFI decay classification system, suggesting this to be the most suitable. The C concentration in dead wood biomass increased with increasing decay class and in average Norway spruce (P. abies) showed a lower C concentration than Scots pine (P. sylvestris). The average dead wood C store of Swedish forests was estimated to 0.85 Mg C/ha.     

Spatial distribution of dead wood and the occurrence of five saproxylic fungi in old-growth timberline spruce forests in northern Finland

Abstract

Adequate understanding of the factors that determine the establishment and survival of dead-wood-dependent species in natural forests is a prerequisite to the successful maintenance of these species in managed forests. This study investigated the factors affecting the occurrence of five wood-inhabiting polypores in old-growth timberline spruce forests in northern Finland, including the substrate availability and the spatial arrangement of large-diameter logs. The volume of coarse woody debris (CWD) varied significantly between the sites (range 15–30 m³ ha^?1), large-diameter logs comprising on average 35% of the total CWD volume. However, the within-site variation in CWD volume was 10–15 times larger than the between-site variation. The spatial distribution of large-diameter logs was aggregated or initially aggregated on four sites and random on one site, creating local patches of high CWD volume. An individual target species occurred on average on 8% of all large-diameter logs, and on 11% of optimal logs (as determined by the decay stage). The characteristics of the logs and stand variables explained partly the occurrence of the target species; furthermore, the mortality pattern of trees (stem breakage versus uprooting) and the presence of primary decomposers also significantly affected the occurrence of the target species. The results indicate that besides substrate availability and quality, local habitat factors and species interactions also play a role in the occurrence of wood-inhabiting fungi in boreal timberline forests.     

Dynamics of large woody debris in small streams disturbed by the 2001 Dogrib fire in the Alberta foothills

We investigated the temporal dynamics of large woody debris (LWD) in five headwater streams before and after the 2001 Dogrib fire in the foothills of Alberta. The density of LWD varied from 5 to 41 logs per 50 m of stream reach and accounted for 19.4 ± 5.1 m³ ha⁻¹ (mean ± standard error) of wood in the riparian zones and 114.1 ± 30.1 m³ ha⁻¹ of wood in the bankfull margins of the stream channel. Individual logs averaged 18.9 ± 1.15 cm in diameter, 5.5 ± 0.7 m in length, and 0.2 ± 0.02 m³ in volume. Logs became significantly shorter in decay classes II–IV. Bridges were longer than partial bridges, which were longer than loose and buried LWD. Individual log volume was greatest for bridges, but not significantly different among other position classes. Bridges and loose LWD contributed little to stream morphology and function; however, 55% of partial bridges and all buried logs contributed to sediment storage, channel armouring, or riffles and pools in the stream channel.     

Altitudinal variability of stand structure and regeneration in the subalpine spruce forests of the Pol’ana biosphere reserve,Central Slovakia

The structure of natural subalpine spruce forest in the Zadná Pol’ana massif of the Western Carpathians was analysed. We focused on the variability of different aspects of stand structure, tree decay and regeneration processes in altitudinal gradient. We used systematic sampling, covering an area of 2 km², to detect even subtle changes in stand structure within one forest type over a range of less than 200 m in elevation. Mean stand density was 290 trees (>7 cm DBH) per hectare, average basal area was 41 m² ha⁻¹, and the volume accumulation in living trees amounted to 500 m³/ha⁻¹. Stand volume decreased by more than 50% between 1,260 and 1,434 m a.s.l. This means for an increase of altitude of 100 m that stand volume decreased by nearly 200 m³. Neither stand density nor basal area was related to elevation. Maximum tree height was strongly correlated to elevation, and it decreased on average by 6 m for each 100 m increment of altitude. No significant changes in the maximum spruce diameter were recorded in relation to the elevation gradient. Spatial distribution of trees was biased toward regularity at lower altitudes. Tree clustering increased with increasing altitude. The stock of coarse woody debris (CWD) decreased slightly along the altitudinal gradient, but changes were not significant. Density of spruce saplings and their number growing on CWD significantly increased across the elevation gradient. Despite the fact that the analysed forest tract was relatively large, highly variable in respect to environmental factors, and that stand volume, spatial structure, and tree height displayed strong variability along the elevation gradient, the diameter structure of stands and regeneration measures were uniform. Our results suggest that the recruitment of new trees in the Zadná Pol’ana subalpine spruce forest is not temporally continuous even at a scale of several square kilometres.     

Habitat associations of saproxylic beetles in the southeastern United States: A comparison of forest types,tree species and wood postures

Saproxylic beetles are highly sensitive to forest management practices that reduce the abundance and variety of dead wood. However, this diverse fauna continues to receive little attention in the southeastern United States even though this region supports some of the most diverse, productive and intensively managed forests in North America. In this replicated three-way factorial experiment, we investigated the habitat associations of saproxylic beetles on the coastal plain of South Carolina. The factors of interest were forest type (upland pine-dominated vs. bottomland hardwood), tree species (Quercus nigra L., Pinus taeda L. and Liquidambar styraciflua L.) and wood posture (standing and downed dead wood, i.e., snags and logs). Wood samples were taken at four positions along each log and snag (lower bole, middle bole, upper bole and crown) ∼11 months after the trees were killed and placed in rearing bags to collect emerging beetles. Overall, 33,457 specimens from 52 families and ≥250 species emerged. Based on an analysis of covariance, with surface area and bark coverage as covariates, saproxylic beetle species richness differed significantly between forest types as well as between wood postures. There were no significant interactions. Species richness was significantly higher in the upland pine-dominated stand than the bottomland hardwood forest, possibly due to higher light exposure and temperature in upland forests. Although L. styraciflua yielded more beetle species (152) than either Q. nigra (122) or P. taeda (125), there were no significant differences in species richness among tree species. There were also no relationships evident between relative tree abundance and observed or expected beetle species richness. Significantly more beetle species emerged from logs than from snags. However snags had a distinct fauna including several potential canopy specialists. Our results suggest that conservation practices that retain or create entire snags as opposed to high stumps or logs alone will most greatly benefit saproxylic beetles in southeastern forests.