Effects of inoculum potential, shading and soil temperature on root infection of oil palm seedlings by the basal stem rot pathogen Ganoderma boninense

Ganoderma boninense causes severe losses to oil palm in South East Asia. The disease typically manifests itself as basal stem rot, but there remains controversy over the route of infection and source of inoculum. Using isolates differing in aggressiveness, infection via roots was confirmed; it was also shown that large inoculum provided as Ganoderma -infested palm- or rubber-wood blocks (12 × 6 × 6 cm) is necessary for soil infection of seedlings after 6–8 months. Smaller blocks (3 × 3 × 3 cm) produced rapid (≤ 3 months) infection of roots and lower stem when physically attached to roots. Therefore fragmentation of infested palm wood from a felled, mature plantation before subsequent replanting may provide inoculum. Failure of G. boninense to grow through non-sterile soil or organic debris from frond bases, suggests it is a poor competitor and that roots must contact inoculum directly. Severe disease occurred after 8 months on inoculated seedlings under shade, but not on seedlings exposed to sun. Soil temperatures in sunlight frequently rose above 40°C and reached 45°C, whereas in shade they never exceeded 32°C. Ganoderma boninense is probably inhibited in exposed soil since optimal growth in vitro was 25–30°C, and there was no recovery from 45°C. Soil temperature may explain why symptoms often first appear in mature plantations when canopy formation creates shade. Infection is not peculiar to senescing palms but can occur throughout the growth cycle.     

Basal stem rot of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis); mode of root infection and lower stem invasion by Ganoderma boninense

Reproducible infection of intact roots of oil palm ( Elaeis guineensis ) with Ganoderma boninense , the cause of basal stem rot, showed penetration followed by rapid longitudinal progression of hyphae and colonization of the lower stem (bole). Light and transmission electron microscopy showed invasion of the root cortex, with no evidence of selective progression through the vascular system or lacunae. In newly colonized tissue the fungus behaved as a hemibiotroph, with numerous, wide, intracellular hyphae occupying entire host cells that possessed intact cell walls and contained discernible cytoplasm and organelles. In the bole this phase coincided with a complete depletion of previously abundant starch grains in advance of invasion. Subsequently, in the roots and colonized stem base, widespread necrotrophic, enzymatic attack of all layers of the host cell walls occurred. Hyphae were intra- and intercellular and intramural and associated host cell wall degradation was often at a distance from hyphae, resulting in cavities within cell walls. A third developmental stage was the formation of an extensive, melanized, tough mycelium or pseudo-sclerotium which surrounded roots and comprised many very thick-walled cells encasing more typical thin-walled hyphae. Macroscopic observation of and isolation from the bole of randomly felled, commercial palms provided confirmatory evidence that multiple infections originated in the roots before spreading into the base of long-established palms.     

Ganoderma boninense basidiospores in oil palm plantations: evaluation of their possible role in stem rots of Elaeis guineensis

Basidiospores are implicated in the distribution and genetic diversity of Ganoderma boninense, cause of basal stem rot (BSR) and upper stem rot (USR) of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis). Measurement of aerial basidiospores within plantations in Sumatra showed continuous and high production over 24 h (range c. 2–11 000 spores m^?3) with maximum release during early evening. Basidiospores applied to cut surfaces of fronds, peduncles and stems germinated in situ. Equivalent, extensive wounds are created during plantation harvesting and management and represent potential sites for formation of infective heterokaryons following mating of haploid basidiospore germlings. Use of spore‐sized micro‐beads showed that basidiospores could be pulled up to 10 cm into severed xylem vessels, where they are relatively protected from dehydration, UV irradiation and competing microflora. Diversity of isolates from five locations on two plantations was assessed by RAMS fingerprinting. Isolates from within individual palms with USR were identical and represent single infections, but different USR infections had unique band patterns and revealed separate infections. Some BSR‐affected trees contained more than one isolate, and thus had multiple infections. There was one example of adjacent BSR palms with the same isolate, indicating vegetative spread, but there were no identical genets from BSR infections and adjacent fallen palms. Isolate diversity was as great within a plantation as between plantations. It is evident that basidiospores play a major role in spread and genetic variability of G. boninense. Evidence for direct basidiospore infection via cut fronds, indirectly through roots via colonized debris and less frequently, infection by vegetative, clonal spread is considered.     

The role of syringic acid in the interaction between oil palm and Ganoderma boninense,the causal agent of basal stem rot

Novel inoculation and assessment methods for Ganoderma boninense infection of oil palm are reported. The involvement of phenolic acids in the interaction was examined. HPLC was used to monitor changes in the concentrations of three specific phenolics: syringic acid (SA), caffeic acid and 4‐hydroxybenzoic acid, identified as the main compounds that accumulated. The work reported here focuses on SA, the most antifungal of the molecules detected. The oil palm cv. AVROS, reported by local planters to be less susceptible than others, showed higher accumulation of SA than cvs Ekona and Calabar. Accumulation was promoted by addition of chitosan to the plant growing medium. By the end of the time‐course, the concentration of SA decreased in the oil palm tissues inoculated with G. boninense, suggesting possible metabolism by the pathogen. This loss was, however, not detected in tissues treated with chitosan alone and was greatly reduced when G. boninense was combined with this polymer. In vitro studies on antifungal activity of SA were done using concentrations ranging from 50 to 110 μg mL^?1, those typically recorded in oil palm roots. SA was found to be antifungal (EC₅₀ 90–100 μg mL^?1). The concentration of SA detected in root tissues, especially in the presence of chitosan, could inhibit growth of G. boninense. The pathogen was shown to degrade SA in vitro. However, at the highest concentration tested, metabolism was greatly delayed, only occurring after a lag phase in pathogen growth. Accumulation of phenolic acids, especially SA, may prove a useful trait in breeding resistant oil palm cultivars.     

Genetic diversity of Ganoderma in oil palm plantings

Isolates of Ganoderma spp. associated with basal stem rot of oil palm were obtained by sampling from two palm plantings in Malaysia. Members of a subset of these were compared using a combination of somatic incompatibility and molecular genetic analyses. Incompatibility interactions between heterokaryons in culture indicated that Ganoderma generally occurred as numerous distinct strains, with compatible strains usually confined to individual palms. Analysis of restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) in presumptive mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) revealed heterogeneity among isolates from neighbouring palms, and from within individual palms. The combination of mtDNA variability and somatic incompatibility suggests that Ganoderma BSR does not spread by direct root-to-root contact between palms. The results may indicate infection spread through basidiospore dispersal or through contact with a heterogeneous long-term residual inoculum in debris.     

Pathogenicity evaluation of Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum race 4 on ginger by leaf-clipping inoculation

Journal of General Plant Pathology - An easy, rapid method has been needed to test the pathogenicity of strains of Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum, the cause of serious bacterial wilt on ginger...     

Pathogenicity of Gaeumannomyces graminis isolates to wheat and rye seedlings

A total of 187 isolates of Gaeumannomyces graminis , obtained from diseased cereal roots between 1979 and 1983, mostly from the UK, were compared for their ability to produce disease on wheat and rye seedlings in the glasshouse. Isolates varied continuously in pathogenic adaptation to rye. from those infecting wheat substantially and rye slightly (designated normal or N-isolates) to those infecting both wheat and rye substantially (designated R-isolates). The degree of adaptation to rye was a consistent characteristic of individual isolates. All were morphologically similar to G. graminis var. tritici R-isolates were obtained from all the areas sampled, they did not appear to predominate on a particular host species and occurred together with N-isolates and intermediates in a single field.     

Effects of time and frequencies of weeding on the growth of polybag oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) seedlings

In oil palm seedlings grown in polybags, delaying the initial hand-weeding of both the polybags and the intervening ground by up to 16 weeks after sowing and subsequently weeding at intervals of 2–6 weeks, had no adverse effects on seedling growth. A delay of initial weeding for 20 weeks after sowing and weeding intervals of 8 weeks retarded seedling growth, particularly number of leaves/plant, plant height and girth, leaf area index and seedling dry weight. Initial weeding delayed beyond 4 weeks after sowing and weeding intervals longer than 2 weeks progressively increased both weed growth and the number of oil palm seedlings affected by blast caused by Rhizoctonia lamellifera Small and Pythium splendens Braun. The seedling population at the end of the experiment was, however, similar in all the weeding treatments. Plant height was the only parameter of seedling growth significantly influenced by different combinations of weeding the polybags and the intervening ground separately at intervals of 4, 8 and 12 weeks respectively, starting after sowing. In view of these findings, four to six weedings after sowing, rather than the present monthly weedings, are recommended over a 12-month period in a polybag oil palm nursery. Effets de l'époque et la fréquence des sarclages sur des jeunes plants de palmier à l'huile (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) cultivés en polysac Pour les jeunes plants de palmier à l'huile cultivés en polysacs, retarder jusqu'à 16 semaines après le semis le premier sarclage manuel des polysacs ainsi que du sol avoisinant et sarcler ensuite à l'intervalles de 2–6 semaines n'a pas nui à la croissance des jeunes plants. Cette croissance a été réduite quand le premier sarclage a été retardé jusqu'à 20 semaines après le semis et que les sarclages ultérieures ont eu lieu à des intervalles de 8 semaines. La réduction s'est fait voir surtout dans le nombre de feuilles par plante, la hauteur et la circonférence des plantes, l'index ce la surface foliaire et le poids sec des plants. Lorsque le premier sarclage a été retardé jusqu'à plus de 4 semaines après le semis et que les sarclages se sont faits à intervalles de plus de 15 jours, l'enherbement est devenu progressivement plus fort ainsi que le nombre de jeunes palmiers touchés par la brûlure provoquée par Rhizoctonia lamellifera Small et Pythium salendens Braun. Néanmoins la population déjeunes plants à la fin de l'expérience était semblable pour tous les systèmes de sarclage. Seule la hauteur des jeunes plants a témoigné d'une influence significative lorsque les polysacs et le sol avoisinant ont été désherbé indépendamment l'un de l'autre à intervalles de 4, 8 et 12 semaines respectivement, à partir du semis. A base de ces résultats, on conseille 4–6 sarclages pendant 12 mois à partir du semis, au lieu des sarclages mensuels pratiqués actuellement dans les pépinières de palmier à l'huile. Ueber die Wirkung von Anzahl und Zeitpunkt der Handjätungen in Oelpalmen-Baumschulen (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) In dieser Studie wird untersucht, welchen Einfluss der Zeitpunkt der ersten Handjätung und die Intervalle zwischen den folgenden manuellen Unkrautentfernungen auf die Entwicklung der in Kunststoffbehältern kultivierten Sämlinge der Oelpalme ausüben. Es wurde kein negativer Einfluss auf des Wachstum der Sämlinge beobachtet, wenn die erste Handjätung bis zu 16 Wochen nach der Aussaat verzögert worden war und die späteren Jätungen in Intervallen von 2–6 Wochen ausgeführt wurden. Hingegen hatten ein Hinausschieben der ersten Entunkrautung auf 20 Wochen nach der Aussaat und Intervalle von 8 Wochen zwischen den weiteren Jätungen eine negative Auswirkung auf die Entwicklung der Sämlinge, insbesondere auf die Anzahl Blätter pro Pfianze, Pflanzenhähe und Stammumfang, Blattflächenindex und Trockengewicht der Sämlinge. Erfolgte die erste Unkrautentfernung später als 4 Wochen nach der Saat und wurden die Intervalle zwischen den späteren Jätungen auf mehr als 2 Wochen ausgedehnt, nahmen in steigendem Masse die Unkrautentwicklung und die Anzahl der durch Rhizoctonia lamellifera Small und Pythium splendens Braun. befallenen Oelpalmensämlinge zu. Immerhin waren am Ende des Versuchs die Sämlingspopulationen in alien Versuchsvarianten ähnlich. Die Pflanzenhöhe war der einzige Parameter des Sämlingswachstums, der durch die verschiedene Kombinationen der separaten Jätungen der Plastikbehälter und des dazwischenliegendun Terrains in Intervallen von 4, 8 und 12 Wochen nach der Aussaat signifikant beeinflusst wurde. Aufgrund der vorliegenden Resultate sind viersechs manuelle Unkrautentfernungen über eine Periode von 12 Monaten verteilt, den heuteüblichen monatlichen Jätungen in Oelpalmen-Baumschulen vorzuziehen.     

Disease Note: Identification of Curvularia oryzae as cause of leaf spot disease on oil palm seedlings in nurseries of Thailand

The causal agent of leaf spot disease of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) seedling nurseries in Thailand was identified as Curvularia oryzae. The fungus was isolated from leaves with disease symptoms, characterized by morphological properties, and pathogenicity tested. The identity of the phytopathogenic fungus was confirmed through polymerase chain reaction analysis using internal transcribed spacer (ITS) primers, which amplified about a 1 kb product. Sequencing this DNA product confirmed this pathogen was C. oryzae. Furthermore, the pathogenicity test showed that C. oryzae could infect oil palm seedlings.     

Transmission of the coconut cadang-cadang viroid to six species of palm by inoculation with nucleic acid extracts

Seedlings of Areca catechu (betel nut palm), Corypha elata (buri palm), Adonidia merrillii (manila palm), Elaeis guineensis (oil palm), Chrysalidocarpus lutescens (palmera) and Oreodoxa regia (royal palm) were inoculated with nucleic acid extracts from coconut palms with cadang-cadang disease. Within 2 years of inoculation, analysis using a ³²P-labelled DNA probe complementary to the coconut cadang-cadang viroid (CCCV) showed that RNA sequences identical to CCCV were present in the inoculated seedlings. Electrophoresis in polyacrylamide gels showed that these palms also contained an RNA with mobility identical to CCCV. Four to five years after inoculation, the infected palms of four species were usually stunted compared with uninoculated palms, while betel nut and palmera were not stunted. Yellowing of leaflets was observed with defined spots or mottling of the older fronds in all except betel nut palms. All infected palms showed mild or severe yellow-leaf spotting. These results widen the known host range and. hence, the potential number of viroid reservoir species in the field.     

Herbicidal control of Chromolaena odorata in oil palm

A range of herbicides was evaluated for the control of Chromolaena odorata (L.) K & R in oil palm at the Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research. Glufosinate-ammonium quickly dessicated treated foliage but weed plants soon recovered. Glyphosate-isopropylamine and glyphosate-trimesium produced similar results, both formulations controlling treated vegetation and suppressing regrowth for up to 12 weeks after treatment. Triclopyr and hexazinone + diuron were effective for up to 20 WAT, whereas imazapyr controlled regrowth for up to 36 WAT. Regrowth of the weed from its roots was better suppressed when the foliage was left undisturbed for 4–7 days after herbicide treatment. Repeated annual applications of triclopyr, hexazinone + diuron, the two formulations of glyphosate or imazapyr progressively reduced the biomass of C . odorata in the plots. In particular, imazapyr effectively eliminated the weed after the second application. Taking crop tolerance into consideration, the most promising herbicide treatments were glyphosate at 2.4 kg a.i. ha⁻¹ and low rates (0.5 kg a.i. ha⁻¹ or less) of imazapyr.     

First report of leaf spot disease on oil palm caused by Pestalotiopsis theae in Thailand

A leaf spot on oil palm, caused by Pestalotiopsis theae, was found in a plantation of Elaeis guineensis for the first time in the world in Chiang Mai Province, Thailand. The fungus was isolated from lesions on leaves, and its pathogenicity was confirmed. Pathogenicity tests showed that P. theae could infect E. guineensis, which developed the same symptoms after inoculation as those observed naturally in the field. The fungus was identified based on morphological characteristics and confirmed using comparisons of DNA sequences of internal transcribed spacer (ITS)1, ITS2 and 5.8S rDNA. This report is the first on oil palm leaf spot disease caused by P. theae.     

Pathogenicity of Stemphylium lycopersici isolated from rotted tobacco seeds on seedlings and leaves

A preemergence damping-off of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) was found in Fukuoka, Japan, in 2009. A fungus repeatedly isolated from the black-rotted seeds reproduced the symptoms in tobacco seeds, and the preemergence damping-off developed after flower and soil inoculation with the fungus. Brown spots and blight developed on leaves of tobacco seedlings after inoculation with the isolate. The fungus was reisolated from the rotted seeds and blighted leaves. The causal fungus was identified as Stemphylium lycopersici based on morphology and phylogenetic analysis. This is the first report to confirm the pathogenicity of S. lycopersici in tobacco in the world.     

Pathogenicity of phylogenetic species in the Fusarium graminearum complex on soybean seedlings in Argentina

Soybean (Glycine max L.) is one of the main crops in Argentina. Most of the studies of pathogenicity in the Fusarium graminearum complex have focused on strains isolated from wheat and maize, and there is little information on strains isolated from soybean. Our objective in the present study was to compare the pathogenicity among soybean isolates of different phylogenetic species within the Fusarium graminearum complex on soybean seedlings under controlled conditions. Six strains representing three different phylogenetic species (F. graminearum, F. meridionale and F. cortaderiae) were identified by partial sequencing of the Translation Elongation Factor -1α gene (TEF-1) and evaluated for pathogenicity. All six strains reduced emergence, mainly by causing pre-emergence damping-off, seedling height and root dry weight and produced abnormal seedlings. The mean disease severity averaged across all isolates was approximately 3.0 in a 0–4 rating scale where 0?=?healthy seedling and 4?=?dead seedling. Significant differences in pathogenicity were observed among F. graminearum, F. meridionale and F. cortaderiae. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that different phylogenetic species within the Fusarium graminearum complex isolated from soybean are pathogenic under controlled conditions to soybean seedlings in Argentina. The present study demonstrates for the first time the pathogenic effect of F. meridionale on soybean in Argentina.     

Spatial patterns of spear rot in oil palm plantations in Surinam

As the aetiology of spear rot of oil palm is unknown, indirect methods were applied to study its putative infectiousness by analysing data from commercial oil palm plantations in Surinam. Geostatistics and gradient analysis were used to examine the spatial variation of spear rot disease in 13 blocks at two plantations. In two blocks, which had low spear rot incidence initially, the variogram indicated that affected trees were not spatially related, suggesting that infection came from various distant sources. Later, the semivariances in one of these two blocks and in seven others, calculated for successive dates, showed a linear increase with distance. The variograms for four blocks showed a nonlinear increase in variance. Over the years, the variograms suggested that the variation in spear rot was anisotropic, with more spatial dependence in a westerly direction. Classical analysis of disease gradients over time confirmed that there was a preferential direction of disease spread. The data are compatible with the following hypotheses: (1) spear rot is an infectious disease; (2) the causal agent of spear rot is vector-borne, the vector being displaceable by wind; and (3) spear rot appears in two distinct phases, phase 1 being characterized by few randomly scattered trees, phase 2 by focal spread of disease starting from such scattered trees. The trigger of the change from phase 1 to phase 2 remains unknown.     

Rhadinaphelenchus cocophilus associated with little leaf of coconut and oil palm

Samenvatting In Suriname wordt bij kokospalm en meer nog bij oliepalm het verschijnsel little leaf waargenomen (fig. 1 en 2). De verkurking, vooral van de binnenzijde van de bladsteel, en de bladmisvormingen die hierbij optreden, kunnen zeer sterk zijn (fig. 3). Deze misvormingen blijken reeds te beginnen bij zeer jonge bladeren van 2,5 tot 4 cm lengte (fig. 4). Op hun bladstelen komen lichtgele, verhoogde plekken voor; de cellen zijn hier abnormaal sterk gedeeld en klein (fig. 5). Op deze plekken bevinden zich veel aaltjes buiten op het weefsel. Bij iets oudere bladeren worden de aaltjes ook op de jonge bladslippen aangetroffen. Als gevolg van de beschadiging in een jong stadium groeien de bladeren slecht, soms in het geheel niet meer uit. Het gevonden aaltje bleek steeds de soortRhadinaphelenchus cocophilus (Cobb) te zijn. Het is bekend als de veroorzaker van red ring bij kokos-en oliepalm. Red ring werd in Suriname echter nooit opgemerkt, terwijl little leaf bij palm op kleigronden niet werd waargenomen. Buiten Suriname werd door ons in Brits Guyana little leaf in combinatie met hetzelfde aaltje geconstateerd.Inoculatie van acht oliepalmen van twee jaar oud door een suspensie van de aaltjes in het groeipunt te gieten, had geen resultaat; van vijf geïnoculeerde oliepalmen van acht jaar oud vertoonde er één na tien maanden duidelijke ziektesymptomen.Vijftien maanden na de inoculatie werden de typische beelden op de jonge bladeren van deze palmen geconstateerd, benevens grote aantallen aaltjes. Bij andere palmen van deze aanplant op klei werd geen little leaf waargenomen.     

Population dynamics of Fusarium species on oil palm seeds following chemical and heat treatments

Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. elaeidis may be present naturally on or within oil palm seeds, thus there is a risk of introducing the disease into previously wilt-free regions. A low proportion of infested seed was shown to give rise to infected plants. Populations of Fusarium spp. on seeds significantly declined after routine processing to induce seed germination, but the pathogen was not eradicated. However, vacuum infiltration and soaking for 7 days with captafol effectively eradicated the pathogen. The significance of F. oxysporum on oil palm seed as a potential inoculum source is discussed.     

Spatio-temporal analysis of spear rot and ‘marchitez sorpresiva’ in African oil palm in Surinam

Spatial patterns of spear rot and ‘marchitez sorpresiva’ epidemics in oil palm in Surinam were analyzed using geostatistics. Semivariogram analysis generally led to linear and spherical graphs of respectively, spear rot and marchitez incidence in areas where the diseases were not yet under control. In both, spear rot and marchitez, semivariograms indicated focal development in the initial stage of the epidemics, illustrated through disease maps and described by gradient analysis. In case of spear rot, the linear model of semivariograms suggested a disease dispersal with a spreading mechanism which operated over long distances within sampled area. Disease dispersal in marchitez was localized, suggesting tree to tree transmission within the range of the spherical semivariograms.