Genetic structure of a population of Ganoderma boninense on oil palm

Ganoderma boninense (the causal agent of basal stem rot of oil palm in Papua New Guinea) has a tetrapolar mating system with multiple alleles. Investigations into the population structure of G. boninense , using interfertility between isolates as a marker, revealed that the population on oil palm was comprised predominantly of genetically distinct individuals, although a number of isolates were found to share single mating alleles. No direct hereditary relationship was found between isolates on neighbouring or spatially separated diseased palms, indicating that outcrossing had probably occurred over several generations in the founder population prior to colonization of oil palm. In this study, a total of 81 A and 83 B mating type alleles (factors) were detected with 18 allelic repeats at the A locus and 17 at the B locus. Alleles appeared to be randomly dispersed throughout the population in each study block, although there was a significantly ( P  < 0·01) higher proportion of allelic repeats between estates separated by several kilometres compared to within estates. This is the first study on the population structure of this species and confirms that sexual reproduction is a significant component of the epidemiology of this disease.     

Effects of inoculum potential, shading and soil temperature on root infection of oil palm seedlings by the basal stem rot pathogen Ganoderma boninense

Ganoderma boninense causes severe losses to oil palm in South East Asia. The disease typically manifests itself as basal stem rot, but there remains controversy over the route of infection and source of inoculum. Using isolates differing in aggressiveness, infection via roots was confirmed; it was also shown that large inoculum provided as Ganoderma -infested palm- or rubber-wood blocks (12 × 6 × 6 cm) is necessary for soil infection of seedlings after 6–8 months. Smaller blocks (3 × 3 × 3 cm) produced rapid (≤ 3 months) infection of roots and lower stem when physically attached to roots. Therefore fragmentation of infested palm wood from a felled, mature plantation before subsequent replanting may provide inoculum. Failure of G. boninense to grow through non-sterile soil or organic debris from frond bases, suggests it is a poor competitor and that roots must contact inoculum directly. Severe disease occurred after 8 months on inoculated seedlings under shade, but not on seedlings exposed to sun. Soil temperatures in sunlight frequently rose above 40°C and reached 45°C, whereas in shade they never exceeded 32°C. Ganoderma boninense is probably inhibited in exposed soil since optimal growth in vitro was 25–30°C, and there was no recovery from 45°C. Soil temperature may explain why symptoms often first appear in mature plantations when canopy formation creates shade. Infection is not peculiar to senescing palms but can occur throughout the growth cycle.     

Basal stem rot of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis); mode of root infection and lower stem invasion by Ganoderma boninense

Reproducible infection of intact roots of oil palm ( Elaeis guineensis ) with Ganoderma boninense , the cause of basal stem rot, showed penetration followed by rapid longitudinal progression of hyphae and colonization of the lower stem (bole). Light and transmission electron microscopy showed invasion of the root cortex, with no evidence of selective progression through the vascular system or lacunae. In newly colonized tissue the fungus behaved as a hemibiotroph, with numerous, wide, intracellular hyphae occupying entire host cells that possessed intact cell walls and contained discernible cytoplasm and organelles. In the bole this phase coincided with a complete depletion of previously abundant starch grains in advance of invasion. Subsequently, in the roots and colonized stem base, widespread necrotrophic, enzymatic attack of all layers of the host cell walls occurred. Hyphae were intra- and intercellular and intramural and associated host cell wall degradation was often at a distance from hyphae, resulting in cavities within cell walls. A third developmental stage was the formation of an extensive, melanized, tough mycelium or pseudo-sclerotium which surrounded roots and comprised many very thick-walled cells encasing more typical thin-walled hyphae. Macroscopic observation of and isolation from the bole of randomly felled, commercial palms provided confirmatory evidence that multiple infections originated in the roots before spreading into the base of long-established palms.     

Ganoderma boninense basidiospores in oil palm plantations: evaluation of their possible role in stem rots of Elaeis guineensis

Basidiospores are implicated in the distribution and genetic diversity of Ganoderma boninense, cause of basal stem rot (BSR) and upper stem rot (USR) of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis). Measurement of aerial basidiospores within plantations in Sumatra showed continuous and high production over 24 h (range c. 2–11 000 spores m^?3) with maximum release during early evening. Basidiospores applied to cut surfaces of fronds, peduncles and stems germinated in situ. Equivalent, extensive wounds are created during plantation harvesting and management and represent potential sites for formation of infective heterokaryons following mating of haploid basidiospore germlings. Use of spore‐sized micro‐beads showed that basidiospores could be pulled up to 10 cm into severed xylem vessels, where they are relatively protected from dehydration, UV irradiation and competing microflora. Diversity of isolates from five locations on two plantations was assessed by RAMS fingerprinting. Isolates from within individual palms with USR were identical and represent single infections, but different USR infections had unique band patterns and revealed separate infections. Some BSR‐affected trees contained more than one isolate, and thus had multiple infections. There was one example of adjacent BSR palms with the same isolate, indicating vegetative spread, but there were no identical genets from BSR infections and adjacent fallen palms. Isolate diversity was as great within a plantation as between plantations. It is evident that basidiospores play a major role in spread and genetic variability of G. boninense. Evidence for direct basidiospore infection via cut fronds, indirectly through roots via colonized debris and less frequently, infection by vegetative, clonal spread is considered.     

The role of syringic acid in the interaction between oil palm and Ganoderma boninense,the causal agent of basal stem rot

Novel inoculation and assessment methods for Ganoderma boninense infection of oil palm are reported. The involvement of phenolic acids in the interaction was examined. HPLC was used to monitor changes in the concentrations of three specific phenolics: syringic acid (SA), caffeic acid and 4‐hydroxybenzoic acid, identified as the main compounds that accumulated. The work reported here focuses on SA, the most antifungal of the molecules detected. The oil palm cv. AVROS, reported by local planters to be less susceptible than others, showed higher accumulation of SA than cvs Ekona and Calabar. Accumulation was promoted by addition of chitosan to the plant growing medium. By the end of the time‐course, the concentration of SA decreased in the oil palm tissues inoculated with G. boninense, suggesting possible metabolism by the pathogen. This loss was, however, not detected in tissues treated with chitosan alone and was greatly reduced when G. boninense was combined with this polymer. In vitro studies on antifungal activity of SA were done using concentrations ranging from 50 to 110 μg mL^?1, those typically recorded in oil palm roots. SA was found to be antifungal (EC₅₀ 90–100 μg mL^?1). The concentration of SA detected in root tissues, especially in the presence of chitosan, could inhibit growth of G. boninense. The pathogen was shown to degrade SA in vitro. However, at the highest concentration tested, metabolism was greatly delayed, only occurring after a lag phase in pathogen growth. Accumulation of phenolic acids, especially SA, may prove a useful trait in breeding resistant oil palm cultivars.     

Genetic diversity of Ganoderma in oil palm plantings

Isolates of Ganoderma spp. associated with basal stem rot of oil palm were obtained by sampling from two palm plantings in Malaysia. Members of a subset of these were compared using a combination of somatic incompatibility and molecular genetic analyses. Incompatibility interactions between heterokaryons in culture indicated that Ganoderma generally occurred as numerous distinct strains, with compatible strains usually confined to individual palms. Analysis of restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) in presumptive mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) revealed heterogeneity among isolates from neighbouring palms, and from within individual palms. The combination of mtDNA variability and somatic incompatibility suggests that Ganoderma BSR does not spread by direct root-to-root contact between palms. The results may indicate infection spread through basidiospore dispersal or through contact with a heterogeneous long-term residual inoculum in debris.     

Basal stem rot of oil palm incited by Ganoderma species: A review

European Journal of Plant Pathology - Populus davidiana × Populus bolleana (PdPap) root rot caused by Fusarium oxysporum is a major disease in China. Controlling this disease...     

Pathogenicity evaluation of Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum race 4 on ginger by leaf-clipping inoculation

Journal of General Plant Pathology - An easy, rapid method has been needed to test the pathogenicity of strains of Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum, the cause of serious bacterial wilt on ginger...     

不同接种方式下球孢白僵菌对小菜蛾的致病力

本文比较了4种接种方式下球孢白僵菌Bb02菌株对小菜蛾2龄和3龄幼虫的致病力。当孢子悬浮液浓度为1×107个/mL时,球孢白僵菌对小菜蛾2龄幼虫校正死亡率为浸虫法73.79%,涂抹法68.28%,喷雾法51.72%和浸叶法33.79%;对3龄幼虫的校正死亡率为喷雾法57.93%,浸虫法57.24%,涂抹法55.86%和浸叶法28.28%,虽然浸虫法的校正死亡率稍低于喷雾法,但两者差异不显著。同时,2龄和3龄幼虫以浸虫法处理僵虫率最高,分别达31.25%和29.55%;致死速度最快,LT50分别为3.62 d和4.63 d。认为浸虫法最适于室内准确评价球孢白僵菌对小菜蛾的致病力。     

Effects of time and frequencies of weeding on the growth of polybag oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) seedlings

In oil palm seedlings grown in polybags, delaying the initial hand-weeding of both the polybags and the intervening ground by up to 16 weeks after sowing and subsequently weeding at intervals of 2–6 weeks, had no adverse effects on seedling growth. A delay of initial weeding for 20 weeks after sowing and weeding intervals of 8 weeks retarded seedling growth, particularly number of leaves/plant, plant height and girth, leaf area index and seedling dry weight. Initial weeding delayed beyond 4 weeks after sowing and weeding intervals longer than 2 weeks progressively increased both weed growth and the number of oil palm seedlings affected by blast caused by Rhizoctonia lamellifera Small and Pythium splendens Braun. The seedling population at the end of the experiment was, however, similar in all the weeding treatments. Plant height was the only parameter of seedling growth significantly influenced by different combinations of weeding the polybags and the intervening ground separately at intervals of 4, 8 and 12 weeks respectively, starting after sowing. In view of these findings, four to six weedings after sowing, rather than the present monthly weedings, are recommended over a 12-month period in a polybag oil palm nursery. Effets de l'époque et la fréquence des sarclages sur des jeunes plants de palmier à l'huile (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) cultivés en polysac Pour les jeunes plants de palmier à l'huile cultivés en polysacs, retarder jusqu'à 16 semaines après le semis le premier sarclage manuel des polysacs ainsi que du sol avoisinant et sarcler ensuite à l'intervalles de 2–6 semaines n'a pas nui à la croissance des jeunes plants. Cette croissance a été réduite quand le premier sarclage a été retardé jusqu'à 20 semaines après le semis et que les sarclages ultérieures ont eu lieu à des intervalles de 8 semaines. La réduction s'est fait voir surtout dans le nombre de feuilles par plante, la hauteur et la circonférence des plantes, l'index ce la surface foliaire et le poids sec des plants. Lorsque le premier sarclage a été retardé jusqu'à plus de 4 semaines après le semis et que les sarclages se sont faits à intervalles de plus de 15 jours, l'enherbement est devenu progressivement plus fort ainsi que le nombre de jeunes palmiers touchés par la brûlure provoquée par Rhizoctonia lamellifera Small et Pythium salendens Braun. Néanmoins la population déjeunes plants à la fin de l'expérience était semblable pour tous les systèmes de sarclage. Seule la hauteur des jeunes plants a témoigné d'une influence significative lorsque les polysacs et le sol avoisinant ont été désherbé indépendamment l'un de l'autre à intervalles de 4, 8 et 12 semaines respectivement, à partir du semis. A base de ces résultats, on conseille 4–6 sarclages pendant 12 mois à partir du semis, au lieu des sarclages mensuels pratiqués actuellement dans les pépinières de palmier à l'huile. Ueber die Wirkung von Anzahl und Zeitpunkt der Handjätungen in Oelpalmen-Baumschulen (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) In dieser Studie wird untersucht, welchen Einfluss der Zeitpunkt der ersten Handjätung und die Intervalle zwischen den folgenden manuellen Unkrautentfernungen auf die Entwicklung der in Kunststoffbehältern kultivierten Sämlinge der Oelpalme ausüben. Es wurde kein negativer Einfluss auf des Wachstum der Sämlinge beobachtet, wenn die erste Handjätung bis zu 16 Wochen nach der Aussaat verzögert worden war und die späteren Jätungen in Intervallen von 2–6 Wochen ausgeführt wurden. Hingegen hatten ein Hinausschieben der ersten Entunkrautung auf 20 Wochen nach der Aussaat und Intervalle von 8 Wochen zwischen den weiteren Jätungen eine negative Auswirkung auf die Entwicklung der Sämlinge, insbesondere auf die Anzahl Blätter pro Pfianze, Pflanzenhähe und Stammumfang, Blattflächenindex und Trockengewicht der Sämlinge. Erfolgte die erste Unkrautentfernung später als 4 Wochen nach der Saat und wurden die Intervalle zwischen den späteren Jätungen auf mehr als 2 Wochen ausgedehnt, nahmen in steigendem Masse die Unkrautentwicklung und die Anzahl der durch Rhizoctonia lamellifera Small und Pythium splendens Braun. befallenen Oelpalmensämlinge zu. Immerhin waren am Ende des Versuchs die Sämlingspopulationen in alien Versuchsvarianten ähnlich. Die Pflanzenhöhe war der einzige Parameter des Sämlingswachstums, der durch die verschiedene Kombinationen der separaten Jätungen der Plastikbehälter und des dazwischenliegendun Terrains in Intervallen von 4, 8 und 12 Wochen nach der Aussaat signifikant beeinflusst wurde. Aufgrund der vorliegenden Resultate sind viersechs manuelle Unkrautentfernungen über eine Periode von 12 Monaten verteilt, den heuteüblichen monatlichen Jätungen in Oelpalmen-Baumschulen vorzuziehen.     

Pathogenicity of Gaeumannomyces graminis isolates to wheat and rye seedlings

A total of 187 isolates of Gaeumannomyces graminis , obtained from diseased cereal roots between 1979 and 1983, mostly from the UK, were compared for their ability to produce disease on wheat and rye seedlings in the glasshouse. Isolates varied continuously in pathogenic adaptation to rye. from those infecting wheat substantially and rye slightly (designated normal or N-isolates) to those infecting both wheat and rye substantially (designated R-isolates). The degree of adaptation to rye was a consistent characteristic of individual isolates. All were morphologically similar to G. graminis var. tritici R-isolates were obtained from all the areas sampled, they did not appear to predominate on a particular host species and occurred together with N-isolates and intermediates in a single field.     

Transmission of the coconut cadang-cadang viroid to six species of palm by inoculation with nucleic acid extracts

Seedlings of Areca catechu (betel nut palm), Corypha elata (buri palm), Adonidia merrillii (manila palm), Elaeis guineensis (oil palm), Chrysalidocarpus lutescens (palmera) and Oreodoxa regia (royal palm) were inoculated with nucleic acid extracts from coconut palms with cadang-cadang disease. Within 2 years of inoculation, analysis using a ³²P-labelled DNA probe complementary to the coconut cadang-cadang viroid (CCCV) showed that RNA sequences identical to CCCV were present in the inoculated seedlings. Electrophoresis in polyacrylamide gels showed that these palms also contained an RNA with mobility identical to CCCV. Four to five years after inoculation, the infected palms of four species were usually stunted compared with uninoculated palms, while betel nut and palmera were not stunted. Yellowing of leaflets was observed with defined spots or mottling of the older fronds in all except betel nut palms. All infected palms showed mild or severe yellow-leaf spotting. These results widen the known host range and. hence, the potential number of viroid reservoir species in the field.     

Disease Note: Identification of Curvularia oryzae as cause of leaf spot disease on oil palm seedlings in nurseries of Thailand

The causal agent of leaf spot disease of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) seedling nurseries in Thailand was identified as Curvularia oryzae. The fungus was isolated from leaves with disease symptoms, characterized by morphological properties, and pathogenicity tested. The identity of the phytopathogenic fungus was confirmed through polymerase chain reaction analysis using internal transcribed spacer (ITS) primers, which amplified about a 1 kb product. Sequencing this DNA product confirmed this pathogen was C. oryzae. Furthermore, the pathogenicity test showed that C. oryzae could infect oil palm seedlings.     

Herbicidal control of Chromolaena odorata in oil palm

A range of herbicides was evaluated for the control of Chromolaena odorata (L.) K & R in oil palm at the Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research. Glufosinate-ammonium quickly dessicated treated foliage but weed plants soon recovered. Glyphosate-isopropylamine and glyphosate-trimesium produced similar results, both formulations controlling treated vegetation and suppressing regrowth for up to 12 weeks after treatment. Triclopyr and hexazinone + diuron were effective for up to 20 WAT, whereas imazapyr controlled regrowth for up to 36 WAT. Regrowth of the weed from its roots was better suppressed when the foliage was left undisturbed for 4–7 days after herbicide treatment. Repeated annual applications of triclopyr, hexazinone + diuron, the two formulations of glyphosate or imazapyr progressively reduced the biomass of C . odorata in the plots. In particular, imazapyr effectively eliminated the weed after the second application. Taking crop tolerance into consideration, the most promising herbicide treatments were glyphosate at 2.4 kg a.i. ha⁻¹ and low rates (0.5 kg a.i. ha⁻¹ or less) of imazapyr.     

苎麻疫霉抗甲霜灵突变株对棉苗的致病力及其遗传

研究了苎麻疫霉抗甲霜灵(Mt^r)突变株对棉苗的致病力及其遗传,结果显示,抗性突变株对棉苗的致病力与其野生型亲本间无显著差异。而Mt^r突变株XC-6-2对棉苗的致病力在其无性第1代(ZG₁)单孢株间及其与亲本间均存在极显著差异,且XC-6-2对棉苗的致病力性状在单游动孢子第2代(ZG₂)持续发生分离;XC-6-2单卵孢第1代(OG₁)对棉苗的致病力间亦存在极显著差异。上述结果提示,抗甲霜灵突变株对棉苗的致病力在无性单孢和单卵孢子后代间均不能稳定遗传。对比研究发现,野生型亲本菌株XC-6对棉苗的致病力在单游动孢子和单卵孢后代有相似的遗传规律,且单游动孢子群体对棉苗致病力的变异系数较其单卵孢株间的变异系数大。     

Pathogenicity of Stemphylium lycopersici isolated from rotted tobacco seeds on seedlings and leaves

A preemergence damping-off of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) was found in Fukuoka, Japan, in 2009. A fungus repeatedly isolated from the black-rotted seeds reproduced the symptoms in tobacco seeds, and the preemergence damping-off developed after flower and soil inoculation with the fungus. Brown spots and blight developed on leaves of tobacco seedlings after inoculation with the isolate. The fungus was reisolated from the rotted seeds and blighted leaves. The causal fungus was identified as Stemphylium lycopersici based on morphology and phylogenetic analysis. This is the first report to confirm the pathogenicity of S. lycopersici in tobacco in the world.     

Herbicidal action of clove oil on cucumber seedlings

The herbicidal action of clove oil on cucumber seedlings was characterized under light and dark conditions. Paraquat showed herbicidal activity only under the light condition, whereas the clove oil displayed herbicidal activity in both the light and the dark condition. Specifically, wilting and water content reduction progressed rapidly under both the light and the dark condition 1 h after the clove oil treatment, whereas the paraquat damage occurred only under the light condition 5 h after treatment. The malondialdehyde concentration increased more with the clove oil treatment than with the paraquat treatment under the light and dark conditions. The superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was stimulated, but the catalase activity decreased in the clove oil treatment. In contrast, both the SOD and catalase activity decreased in the paraquat treatment. These results suggest that clove oil exerts herbicidal effects through a mechanism that is different from that of paraquat.     

First report of leaf spot disease on oil palm caused by Pestalotiopsis theae in Thailand

A leaf spot on oil palm, caused by Pestalotiopsis theae, was found in a plantation of Elaeis guineensis for the first time in the world in Chiang Mai Province, Thailand. The fungus was isolated from lesions on leaves, and its pathogenicity was confirmed. Pathogenicity tests showed that P. theae could infect E. guineensis, which developed the same symptoms after inoculation as those observed naturally in the field. The fungus was identified based on morphological characteristics and confirmed using comparisons of DNA sequences of internal transcribed spacer (ITS)1, ITS2 and 5.8S rDNA. This report is the first on oil palm leaf spot disease caused by P. theae.