皇甫川流域单株本氏针茅的蒸腾模型

采用快速离体称重法,测定皇甫川流域本氏针茅每日6:00-19:00蒸腾强度的日动态;用自动气象站同步连续监测太阳总辐射、空气温度、空气相对湿度、风速、10 cm处土壤温度等环境因子;用LI-6400便携式光合系统同步测定本氏针茅每日6:00-19:00的叶蒸腾速率、气孔导度等因子,并用Excel 2003,Visual C++6.0和SPSS 13.0处理所测定数据.通过分析本氏针茅每1 h单株蒸腾量与环境因子以及植物特性因子之间的关系,建立了皇甫川流域单株本氏针茅瞬时蒸腾量数学模型.通过对模型评价指标进行计算及分析,认为该模型拟合优度较好,可以获得满意的数值模拟结果.在此基础上,建立了单株本氏针茅的日蒸腾量数学模型.     

Monitoring stomatal conductance of Jatropha curcas seedlings under different levels of water shortage with infrared thermography

Model simulations and experimental measurements were used to investigate the applicability of infrared thermography for the estimation of stomatal conductance and drought stress under sub-optimal meteorological conditions. The study focused on the stomatal conductance index I_g, calculated from the leaf temperature and the temperature of a dry and wet reference leaf. The simulations revealed that I_g is influenced by leaf dimension, wind speed and air temperature and not or hardly by leaf angle, albedo, relative humidity or insolation. In addition, I_g was found to be very sensitive to differences in wind speed, air temperature, insolation, leaf dimension and leaf angle between the measured and the reference leaves. In the experimental part, we evaluated if infrared thermography can be used to improve the knowledge on the water use of Jatropha curcas L., a tropical biofuel crop. Thermal images from Jatropha seedlings grown under three different drought treatments were made on a day with very variable insolation and a day with very low insolation. Smaller newly formed leaves and the active control of the leaf angle proved efficient ways of Jatropha to protect leaves under drought stress from overheating. I_g, assessed in four different ways, and four simplified drought stress indices were derived and related to the measured stomatal conductance (g_s) of the seedlings. The strongest correlation with g_s and the highest discriminative power between the different water treatments were achieved when I_g was calculated by taking the average leaf temperature per plant and the temperature of the dry and wet reference leaves of this plant, rather than the average temperature of several reference leaves. Using the difference between the dry reference and the measured leaf (T_dry − T_l) as a simplified index gave similar results, although correlations were weaker. Other simplified thermal indices were not well correlated with leaf stomatal conductance or with water treatment. Recommendations were formulated for the measurement of I_g and (T_dry − T_l).     

FACE条件下小麦冠层能量平衡和水分利用率的变化

本文利用中国开放式CO2浓度增高(Free-air CO2 Enrichment,简称FACE)系统平台,于2007年3月19日至5月24日小麦拔节至成熟期进行小麦冠层微气候及相关项目的连续观测,并结合能量平衡分析,研究中国FACE系统对小麦冠层能量平衡各分量的变化特征及水分利用率的影响.能量平衡分析结果表明,小麦冠层白天总显热通量FACE均高于对照,而总潜热通量FACE均低于对照,潜热通量FACE与对照的差异日最大值变化在-12～-63 W˙m-2之间,显热通量FACE与对照的差异最大值变化在12～78 W-m-2之间.能量平衡是小气候变化的根本,利用p-M方程反演出的冠层群体气孔导度与实测的气孔导度相关关系较好,证明能量平衡的计算结果及小气候观测数据基本正确.观测期间内模拟计算结果表明,CO2浓度升高使小麦的水分利用减小约25.5 mm,结合生物量的增加,FACE条件下小麦水分利用率增加约19%.     

Responses of canopy and soil climate in a six year free-air CO2 enrichment study with spring crops

Besides increased growth, plants cultivated under elevated carbon dioxide (CO₂) show reduced transpiration and improved water use efficiency due to decreased stomatal conductances. While growth profits from the longer availability of soil water under CO₂ enrichment, increased canopy temperature may counteract these positive effects. Here we report on time series of soil temperatures and moistures from six years in which spring crops were cultivated in free-air CO₂ enrichment (Mini-FACE) experiments. Besides air and soil climate, temperature and relative humidity were determined in wheat canopies. Measurements rested on five replicates per treatment, representing a control (CON), an ambient air (AMB) and a FACE treatment. While the CON and AMB plots did not receive additional CO₂, concentrations were moderately elevated by 150 μl l^?1 in the FACE plots. Plant growth differed among years due to the different climate and duration of individual experiments. Total biomass production was increased in the FACE treatments but significant effects were found only in one out of six years. In most of the years, soil temperatures tended to be reduced and soil moistures remained higher under elevated CO₂. Because the observed differences recurred during the growing season, we conclude that CO₂ enrichment was responsible for changes of the soil microclimate. At the same time vapour pressure deficit in the canopy significantly differed between the treatments for some days. While canopy heating due to CO₂ enrichment occurred in the early growing season these effects disappeared later suggesting that the stronger increase in leaf area index in the FACE treatments mitigated heating effects over time. The results support the supposed effects of CO₂ enrichment on the canopy climate and indicate a ‘microclimatic paradox’ with higher soil water availability due to the reduced transpiration and stronger canopy heating in FACE plots at least early in the season.     

Physiological Effects of Exposure to Arsenic,Mercury, Antimony and Selenium in the Aquatic Moss Fontinalis antipyretica Hedw.

This study assessed the effect of ambient air pollution on leaf characteristics of white willow, northern red oak, and Scots pine. Willow, oak, and pine saplings were planted at sixteen locations in Belgium, where nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), ozone (O₃), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), and particulate matter (PM₁₀) concentrations were continuously measured. The trees were exposed to ambient air during 6 months (April–September 2010), and, thereafter, specific leaf area (SLA), stomatal resistance (R _s), leaf fluctuating asymmetry (FA), drop contact angle (CA), relative chlorophyll content, and chlorophyll fluorescence (F _v/F _m) were measured. Leaf characteristics of willow, oak, and pine were differently related to the ambient air pollution, indicating a species-dependent response. Willow and pine had a higher SLA at measuring stations with higher NO₂ and lower O₃ concentrations. Willow had a higher R _s and pine had a higher F _v/F _m at measuring stations with a higher NO₂ and lower O₃ concentrations, while oak had a higher F _v/F _m and a lower FA at measuring stations with a higher NO₂ and lower O₃ concentrations. FA and R _s of willow, oak, and pine, SLA of oak, and CA of willow were rather an indicator for local adaptation to the micro-environment than an indicator for the ambient air pollution.     

Water status and stomatal behaviour of cowpea,Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp,plants inoculated with two Glomus species at low soil moisture levels

The effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi on water status and stomatal behaviour of cowpea, Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. cv. B89-504, under water-stressed conditions in the greenhouse were studied. The 3 × 2 experimental design included two levels of mycorrhizal colonisation (Glomus mosseae, Glomus versiforme) and non-mycorrhizal control treatment and two soil moisture levels (well-watered pots and pots allowed to dry). Relative water content and leaf water potential values were higher in well-watered mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal plants than in water-stressed mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal plants. AM species had no significant effect on leaf osmotic potential, stomatal conductance and leaf transpiration in both well watered and water-stressed plants. The values of stomatal conductance and leaf transpiration were high during the vegetative stage and low during the flowering stage. These responses which can be related to the age of the plant suggest that mycorrhizal colonisation did not affect stomatal closure of cowpea plants during water stress. The decrease in plant growth and dry matter production in both mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal plants shows that drought resistance in cowpea was unaffected by mycorrhiza in the vegetative phase.     

Coupled model of stomatal conductance–photosynthesis–transpiration for paddy rice under water-saving irrigation

To improve the performance of a coupled model based on a Leuning–Ball stomatal conductance (g_s) model for rice under water deficit conditions, leaf temperature rising (ΔT) was incorporated into the Leuning–Ball model and a revised coupled model for simulation of stomatal conductance g_s–net photosynthesis rate (P_n)–transpiration rate (T_r) was developed based on data collected from a rice paddy with nonflooded controlled irrigation in 2003 and 2004. Both a Leuning–Ball and revised Leuning–Ball and coupled model based on both were evaluated with internal conductance (g_ic) determined by different equations. The performance of the Leuning–Ball model was improved under water deficit condition by incorporating ΔT, and the revised Leuning–Ball model performed better than the Leuning–Ball model in the coupled model of stomatal conductance–photosynthesis–transpiration for rice under water deficit conditions. Meanwhile, accuracy in g_ic calculation is essential for simulation of P_n, but not for simulation of T_r. Thus, leaf temperature rising ΔT is suitable as a leaf water status indicator in a simulation of rice leaf gas exchange response to water deficit conditions.     

Temperature effects on plant response to sulfur dioxide in Zea mays,Liriodendron tulipifera,and Fraxinus pennsylyanica

The influence of a 7 °C range of air temperature (28 to 35 °C) on plant response to SO₂ (0.4 μL L^?1 for 7 hr) was investigated in herbaceous (Zea mays) and woody (Liriodendron tulipifera and Fraxinus pennsylvanica) species. The indices of plant response were SO₂-induced changes in photosynthesis and the transpiration ratio. The physiological basis of differences in response as a function of temperature was evaluated through determination of SO₂ flux to foliage. The most consistent influence of the higher temperature for all three species was an increase of 20 to 50% in the foliar S content. The transpiration ratio and photosynthesis were more responsive to SO₂ at the higher temperature in both woody species but less responsive in Z. mays. Thus, the pattern of SO₂-induced injury as a function of temperature was not consistent among all species. Several mechanisms are proposed to account for the increase in SO₂ flux at higher temperatures, including a change in stomatal conductance and direct temperature effects on the conductivity of the diffusive media (gas and liquid phase) and the kinetic energy of SO₂ molecules. Since the pattern of temperature-dependent plant responses to SO₂ was species-specific, generalizations about the modifying role of temperature on plant responses to SO₂ are limited.     

基于Penman-Monteith方程的日光温室番茄蒸腾量估算模

为寻求适合于温室栽培条件下番茄植株蒸腾量的计算模型,该文以Penman-Monteith方程为基础,针对日光温室特定的小气候环境,对番茄冠层整体气孔阻力、空气动力学阻力等参数进行了修正,建立了包含气象数据、番茄叶面积指数和冠层高度为主要参数的日光温室番茄蒸腾量估算模型。分别采用2009-05-02－2009-05-13（开花坐果期）和2009-06-09－2009-06-20（成熟采摘期）2个时段内的实测蒸腾量对模型模拟结果进行验证,2个时段内模型模拟结果的平均相对误差分别为8.48%和9.20%,表明所建模型可以较好地计算日光温室番茄的蒸腾量。该研究提出的蒸腾量估算模型对日光温室番茄需水规律的深入研究具有参考价值。     

基于Penman-Monteith方程的温室番茄蒸腾量估算模型

作物的蒸腾是作物生命过程中十分重要的组成部分。为寻求适合于温室栽培条件下番茄植株蒸腾量的计算模型,本文以Penman-Monteith方程为基础,针对温室特定的小气候环境,对番茄冠层整体气孔阻力、空气动力学阻力等参数进行合理修正,建立了包含气象数据、番茄叶面积指数和冠层高度为主要参数的温室番茄蒸腾量估算模型。分别采用2009年5月2-13日（开花坐果期）和2009年6月9-20日（成熟采摘期）2个时段内的实测蒸腾量对模型模拟结果进行验证,2个时段内模型模拟结果的平均相对误差分别为8.48%和9.20%,表明所建模型可以较好地的计算温室番茄的蒸腾量。本研究提出的蒸腾量估算模型对温室番茄作物水分关系的深入研究具有重要参考价值。     

Simulating sunflower canopy temperatures to infer root-zone soil water potential

A soil—plant—atmosphere model for sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), together with clear sky weather data for several days, is used to study the relationship between canopy temperature and root-zone soil water potential. Considering the empirical dependence of stomatal resistance on insolation, air temperature and leaf water potential, a continuity equation for water flux in the soil—plant—atmosphere system is solved for the leaf water potential. The transpirational flux is calculated using Monteith's combination equation, while the canopy temperature is calculated from the energy balance equation. The simulation shows that, at high soil water potentials, canopy temperature is determined primarily by air and dew point temperatures. These results agree with an empirically derived linear regression equation relating canopy-air temperature differential to air vapor pressure deficit. The model predictions of leaf water potential are also in agreement with observations, indicating that measurements of canopy temperature together with a knowledge of air and dew point temperatures can provide a reliable estimate of the root-zone soil water potential.     

Evaluating plant and canopy resistances of field-grown wheat from concurrent diurnal observations of leaf water potential,stomatal resistance,canopy temperature,and evapotranspiration flux

Concurrent observations of leaf water potential, stomatal diffusion resistance and canopy temperature were made on two plots of wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cv. Anza) growing at Phoenix, Arizona under two different soil water conditions. These data were further complemented by weather observations and lysimeter measurements of total evaporative water loss from the plots. Transpiration fluxes for each plot were estimated by an aerodynamic-energy balance approach and compared with the lysimeter data. Plant resistances were computed from the transpiration flux results and the leaf water potential measurements using van den Honert's equation, while canopy resistances were also computed from the transpiration flux using Monteith's equation. The calculated plant resistance decreased by a factor of almost two from morning to mid-afternoon whereas the ratio of canopy and stomatal resistances was constant during most of the day.     

Problems with porometry: measuring stomatal conductances of potentially transpiring plants

Porometer measurements of the stomatal conductances (C_s) of potentially transpiring water hyacinth plants at Phoenix, Arizona in October of 1984, May–June of 1985, and September of 1986 indicate that C_s steadily drops as the vapor pressure deficit (VPD) of the air in the measuring system's cuvette or leaf chamber rises. Utilizing this relationship to calculate the foliage-air temperature differential (T_F−T_A) response of these leaves to leaf-chamber air VPD, as per the basic equations of standard heat and water vapor transport theory; we obtain a leaf-chamber “non-water-stressed baseline” that is consistent with leaf-chamber measurements of T_F−T_A vs. air VPD. Free-air T_F−T_A vs. air VPD data, on the other hand, produce a relationship that is similarly consistent with a plant stomatal conductance which is invariant with respect to the air VPD. Hence, we conclude that the very act of stomatal conductance measurement alters a potentially transpiring plant's evaporative water loss rate in such a way that, for very high air VPD conditions, the directly measured C_s value (although correct for the leaf in the cuvette or leaf chamber) may be much reduced from that characteristic of comparable non-chamber-encumbered plants in the free air. We then demonstrate that this instrument-induced reduction in directly measured C_s values is a unique function of the leaf-chamber IJ index, evaluated with respect to the plant's free-air non-water-stressed baseline. Similar results obtained by others for cotton suggest that this phenomenon may be quite general, and that the C_s vs. air VPD interaction, believed by many to be widely operative throughout the plant kingdom, may not really exist in actual field situations.     

Silicon Decreases Transpiration Rate and Conductance from Stomata of Maize Plants

ABSTRACT

To characterize the effect of silicon (Si) on decreasing transpiration rate in maize (Zea mays L.) plants, the transpiration rate and conductance from both leaves and cuticula of maize plants were measured directly. Plants were grown in nutrient solutions with and without Si under both normal water conditions and drought stress [20% polyethylene glycol (PEG) concentration in nutrient solution] treatments. Silicon application of 2 mmol L^?1 significantly decreased transpiration rate and conductance for both adaxial and abaxial leaf surface, but had no effect on transpiration rate and conductance from the cuticle. These results indicate that the role of Si in decreasing transpiration rate must be largely attributed to the reduction in transpiration rate from stomata rather than cuticula. Stomatal structure, element deposition, and stomatal density on both adaxial and abaxial leaf surfaces were observed with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and a light microscope. Results showed that changes in neither stomatal morphology nor stomatal density could explain the role of Si in decreasing stomatal transpiration of maize plants. Silicon application with H₄SiO₄ significantly increased Si concentration in shoots and roots of maize plants. Silicon concentration in shoots of maize plants was higher than in roots, whether or not Si was applied. Silicon deposits in cell walls of the leaf epidermis were mostly in the form of polymerized SiO₂.     

中国沙棘、俄罗斯沙棘和俄罗斯沙棘×中国沙棘光合特性及影响因子

在陕北黄土丘陵沟壑区用LI-6400光合仪对中国沙棘、俄罗斯沙棘和俄罗斯沙棘×中国沙棘光合特性及影响因子进行了测定。测定结果表明三者的光合速率、气孔导度、胞间CO2浓度、蒸腾速率日变化均为“双峰”曲线。中国沙棘光合“午休”现象较轻,日光合速率和午后光合速率、气孔导度、胞间CO2浓度、蒸腾速率极显著（P〈0．01）高于俄罗斯沙棘和俄罗斯沙棘×中国沙棘。中国沙棘光合作用最适气孔导度、大气CO2浓度、空气相对湿度比俄罗斯沙棘小,最适胞间CO2浓度、蒸腾速率、气温、光合有效辐射比俄罗斯沙棘高。中国沙棘在最适气孔导度、胞间CO2浓度、蒸腾速率和大气CO2浓度下的光合速率比俄罗斯沙棘高;在最适气温、空气相对湿度、光合有效辐射下的光合速率比俄罗斯沙棘低。俄罗斯沙棘×中国沙棘光合“午休”现象比中国沙棘强,比俄罗斯沙棘弱,午后光合速率与俄罗斯沙棘相近;俄罗斯沙棘×中国沙棘最适气孔导度、大气CO2浓度高于中国沙棘和俄罗斯沙棘,最适胞间CO2浓度低于中国沙棘和俄罗斯沙棘,最适蒸腾速率、气温、空气相对湿度、光合有效辐射居于中国沙棘和俄罗斯沙棘之间。俄罗斯沙棘×中国沙棘在最适气孔导度下的光合速率高于中国沙棘和俄罗斯沙棘;在最适胞间CO2浓度、蒸腾速率、气温、大气CO2浓度、空气相对湿度、光合有效辐射下的光合速率低于中国沙棘和俄罗斯沙棘。中国沙棘、俄罗斯沙棘和俄罗斯沙棘×中国沙棘的光合速率均与上午的气孔导度、胞间CO2浓度、蒸腾速率、气温、大气CO2浓度、空气相对湿度、光合有效辐射显著相关,均为“抛物线”关系。     

The sensitivity of modeled SO2 fluxes and profiles to stomatal and boundary layer resistances

A higher-order closure model for canopy/surface exchange is presented and applied to an oak-hickory forest to model SO₂ deposition for typical summertime conditions. The model is then used as a tool to investigate the sensitivity of modeled fluxes (the deposition velocity) and concentration profiles to the parameters used to compute the leaf boundary layer and stomatal resistances. Both the deposition velocity and concentration profiles show little sensitivity to variations in the leaf boundary-layer resistance (r _b) since it generally comprises only a small fraction of the total resistance to diffusion from the air to the sub-stomatal cavity. The deposition velocity (V _d ) is more sensitive to variations in the minimum stomatal resistance (r _s ,min) and light response coefficient (β) than r _b .It was found that 50% variations in β give a maximum difference of 0.2 cm s^?1 in V _d while 30% variations in r _s , min produce a maximum difference of near 0.3 cm s^?1.     

红壤坡地茶园蒸腾速率及其环境影响因子的研究

试验研究红壤坡地茶园植株蒸腾作用结果表明 ,茶园植株蒸腾速率呈明显早、晚低 ,中午高的日变化趋势 ,且蒸腾速率日际变化有一定差异。气温与净辐射为影响茶园植株蒸腾作用的主要气象因子。蒸腾速率与叶片气孔导度关系密切 ,且随气孔导度的增加而增大。并探讨了植物蒸腾驱动力及其抑制的可能性 ,气孔行为的调节与水分利用效率。     

Relationship between wheat yield and foliage temperature: theory and its application to infrared measurements

A theoretical basis is presented for the relationship between crop yield and one time-of-day measurements of the foliage-ambient temperature differential (T_f — T_a). The theory was used to analyse two contrasting relationships between wheat yield and T_f — T_a. The relationships resulted from a range of irrigation treatments and two times of sowing imposed on 26 plots. This caused yields to vary from 8.3 to 1.7 t ha^?1 when the crop was sown in June and from 5.5 to 2.2 t ha^?1 when sown in August. To explain these variations T_f — T_a and associated micrometeorological data were collected around solar noon during the period from jointing to maturity. From these data transpiration and the associated aerodynamic and canopy stomatal resistances to water vapour transport were predicted. The associated canopy conductances for diffusion of CO₂ were derived and used to predict the corresponding CO₂ assimilation rates.The predicted transpiration and CO₂ assimilation rates were closely related to yield within each year but not between years. However if the rates were normalised for the shorter growing season of the late sown crop the yields from the 26 plots formed a common relationship. The transpiration vs. yield relationship was further improved by normalising for differences in foliage vapour pressure deficit. The good agreement between field data and theory was probably due to the dominating effect of stomatal control on both T_f — T_a and CO₂ assimilation rate. If CO₂ assimilation rate is strongly influenced by factors other than soil water stress then the theory may not hold and a different relationship may exist. It was concluded that infrared thermometry is a useful technique for studying yield variations in agronomic experiments where these variations are due to stomatal control.     

Bush bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L) leaf injury,photosynthesis and stomatal functions under elevated ozone levels

Three bush bean cultivars (Lit, Groffy and Stella) were grown under four levels of ozone exposure (ambient air+50 ppb O₃ ambient air+25 ppb O₃, ambient air and charcoal filtered air) in open- top chambers. Number and leaf injury statistics showed significant reduction in the number of healthy leaves as the level of O₃ increased. The area based leaf injury percentages of the cvs. Lit, Groffy and Stella were 69.8, 57.9 and 71.1% at the highest O₃ level, 24.1, 19.6 and 30.3% at the 2nd highest O₃ level, and 4.5, 0.7 and 5.6% at the ambient air, respectively. The plants grown in the filtered air revealed no injury symptoms. The stomatal conductances were found to decrease gradually in each cultivar as the O₃ level increased. At the highest O₃ level, Chlorophyll fluorescence measurements on the 2nd leaf from the top on 24th day of exposure resulted in significantly the highest Fv/Fm values, the lowest f₀ and the highest F_m values whereas the 4th leaf showed the smallest Fm and correspondingly the smallest F_v/F_m values. This is an indication of photosystem II damage after accumulation of a high ozone dose in the 4th leaf. The photosynthetic rate of the 2nd leaf measured on 30th day of exposure was comparatively higher at the highest exposure but the data taken from the same leaf on 40th day of exposure showed significantly lower photosynthetic rate than the plants in ambient air. Both chlorophyll fluorescence and photosynthetic measurements indicated that ozone stressed leaves experience a stimulation of photosynthesis (possibly due to increased assimilate demand) prior to irreversible damage. Bush bean leaves need to accumulate a critical ozone dose(an AOT40 of presumably > 18 ppm-h) for reduction of the photosynthetic capacitys.     

Automated measurement of canopy stomatal conductance based on infrared temperature

Decreased water uptake closes stomates, which reduces transpiration and increases leaf temperature. The leaf or canopy temperature has long been used to make an empirical estimate of plant water stress. However, with a few supplemental measurements and application of biophysical principles, infrared measurement of canopy temperature can be used to calculate canopy stomatal conductance (g_C), a physiological variable derived from the energy balance for a plant canopy. Calculation of g_C requires an accurate measurement of canopy temperature and an estimate of plant height, but all of the other measurements are available on automated weather stations. Canopy stomatal conductance provides a field-scale measurement of daily and seasonal stomatal response to prevailing soil water and atmospheric conditions, and facilitates a comparison of models that scale conductance from single leaves (measured with porometers) to canopies. A sensitivity analysis of the input measurements/estimates showed g_C is highly sensitive to small changes in canopy and air temperature, and less sensitive to the other required measurements (relative humidity, net radiation, wind speed, and plant canopy height). The measurement of g_C becomes increasingly sensitive to all of the component factors as the conditions become cloudier, cooler, and more humid. We determined g_C for alfalfa and turfgrass by making the necessary environmental measurements and coupling them with a two-source (plant canopy layer and soil layer) energy balance model. We then compared these g_C values to maximum single leaf values scaled-up to the canopy level (g_CP, defined as potential canopy stomatal conductance herein) for the two crops. For both crops, g_C matched g_CP within approximately 10% after irrigation. The turfgrass g_C measurements were also compared to mean single leaf values measured with a porometer. At mid-day, g_C values were typically about double the single leaf values. Because this approach for determining g_C allows continuous, non-contact measurement, it has considerable potential for coupling with measurements of soil moisture to better understand plant–soil water relations. It also has potential for use in precision drought stress and irrigation scheduling.