Forest-based betel leaf and betel nut People in Bangladesh： approach Lawachara National Park （LNP） farming of the Khasia indigenous to biodiversity conservation in

An exploratory survey was conducted among the Khasia living in Lawachara National Parkt （LNP） to investigate their depend- ency on the protected area （PA） for livelihoods, betel leaf hill farming, traditional forest conservation and perceptions of the PA, Field data were collected by interviewing 48 household heads from two villages （punjis） located inside the LNP and visiting their farms.： The economy of the Khasia was forest-based. They were largely dependent on betel leaf hill farming in LNP and nearly 71% of their mean annual income was de- rived from this irrespective of farmer category. On average, about 14% of the incomes of the poorer farmers came from forest produce followed by 10% and 6% for medium and rich farmers respectively. Hills and forests were the foundations of their lives and livelihoods, and LNP was the life-blood of Khasia survival. As a sustainable production system, this farming practice plays a vital role in conserving biodiversity in LNP and might be replicated elsewhere.     

Sustainability Attributes of a Small-Scale Betel Leaf Agroforestry System: A Case Study in North-eastern Hill Forests of Bangladesh

The Khasia ethnic community of Bangladesh has been a population of forest villagers in the north-eastern hill forests of Bangladesh since the early 1950s, practicing a betel leaf-based agroforestry system on land granted by the Forest Department. Taking a sample forest village of the Sylhet forest division as a case study, this article examines the sustainability attributes of betel leaf production in the agroforestry system. The presence of several positive attributes of sustainability including the composition of agroforestry, disease control, soil fertility management, profitability, socio-cultural acceptability and institutional support indicate that betel leaf production within the agroforestry system is stable under the prevailing traditional management system. Income from the sale of betel leaf is the principal livelihood means and villager’s reciprocal contributions help to conserve forest resources. However, problems with land ownership and regular agreement renewal need to be resolved for the sake of their livelihoods and forest conservation.

The indigenous hill-farming system of Khasia tribes in moulvibazar district of Bangladesh: Status and impacts

Rapid economic growth of the Khasia people has resulted from a most successful betel leaf farming system practiced within the fringe of reserved forests, where government policies have facilitated effective use of the local people as a labour force for production, protection and conservation of biodiversity of the surrounding forests. Khasia tribes have traditionally grown betel leaf plants on naturally occurring trees. Deforestation is a serious problem in Bangladesh, whereas the Khasia people living within forests are protecting trees for their livelihood, including selling betel leaf, collecting fuelwood and consuming and selling fruits from support trees. It is a profitable yet sustainable forest production system, maintaining soil fertility, stable production and optimal family size, and has created employment opportunities for the people living within and outside the forests. It has enhanced the supply of socially required betel leaf to the local markets, contributed to price stability, and generated some export revenue. However, the revenue of growers has been reduced by plant diseases and the capture of resource rent by middlemen. Economic benefits could be further increased through government initiatives to improve management and the marketing system. This paper is based on a presentation at the International Conference on Economics of Sustainable Forest Management, University of Toronto, Canada, May 20–22, 2004.     

Forest edges in western Uganda: From refuge for the poor to zone of investment

Western Uganda is home to growing populations of smallholder agriculturalists, expanding commodity plantations, and protected forests. In this setting, we document a shift in who uses forest edge land and how it is used. In developing countries, protected forest edges are traditionally sites where marginalized people can subsist, but increasing land competition has the potential to change this scenario. We used longitudinal field data spanning two decades to characterize the evolution of landownership and land use neighboring Kibale National Park. The number of households has more than doubled since 1993. Land values are rising, and people buying land near the park in recent years are significantly wealthier and have more off-farm income than those who acquired land there in earlier periods. The reverse is true of renters. More people are growing inedible perennial cash crops like eucalyptus, tea, and coffee, especially those with larger amounts of land and capital. Some long-term residents are prospering, while others are squeezed onto ever smaller pieces of land and opting for precarious rental arrangements as land competition increases. We discuss the implications of this transitioning park neighborhood, both for conservation and local livelihoods.     

Forest contributions to livelihoods in changing agriculture-forest landscapes

Forests support the livelihoods of a vast number of people through subsistence use of products, such as food, fodder, and medicinal plants; cash income obtained from sale of products; and more indirect ecological benefits such as the contributions of forests and trees to agricultural productivity. It is widely acknowledged that these contributions can be paramount to local livelihoods, yet country- and region-wide data on their linkages remains sparse and limited attention has been devoted to understanding synergies and trade-offs between, for example, subsistence and cash exchange-based contributions. And because many forest landscapes are now transitioning towards patchworks of land uses owing to agricultural expansion, conservation interventions, urbanization, and other drivers, the ways in which forests support livelihoods are in flux leaving questions about potential shifts in their importance relatively unexplored. This editorial as well as the papers collected in this special issue on Forests, food, and livelihoods, discuss the ways in which forests contribute to livelihoods, including interactions between them, and how they change as landscapes transition. By doing so, we point to the need to move beyond single-year data collection to comparable temporal points and panel data as well as the importance of accounting for a) subsistence use values, b) commercial use values, and c) ecological forest contributions in poverty alleviation policies.     

Community Forest Management in Thailand: Current Situation and Dynamics in the Context of Sustainable Development

Community forest management (CFM) has received increasing worldwide attention from governments, researchers and educational institutions over the past two decades. Many governments, especially in developing countries, have prioritized CFM over traditional forest management systems. In Thailand, CFM is not recognized by the legal system; however, there are de facto CFM practices under common property resource regimes. CFM has in essence been practiced here for hundreds of years by local people, and represents an important aspect of Thai culture. This study aims at evaluating CFM in Thailand in the context of sustainable development. To meet the objective, the study gathered information through focus group discussions with various stakeholders: academics, Forest Department staff, and members of the Chang Tok Tay community forests. From the study, it emerged that forest resources are critical for the livelihoods and survival of rural people, and so they have protected forests to ensure sustainable livelihoods. This study identified that prospects for sustainable CFM in Thailand are bright because: (i) community members are highly motivated and are sufficiently interested to protect trees because they are well aware that their livelihoods are under threat from depleting forests; (ii) tradition and culture of rural people support their relation with nature; (iii) non-timber forest products (NTFPs) play a crucial role in local livelihoods for subsistence and necessitate protection of the forest watershed, which is vital to support their occupations; (iv) spiritual rituals such as those where Buddhist monks bind yellow cloth on trees play a vital role in protecting trees, something rare in other countries. The study further identified various hindrances to achieve sustainable CFM: (i) legal support for CFM is absent; (ii) the Royal Forest Department (RFD) cannot transfer appropriate technology to community people due to lack of legal support; (iii) scope for developing effective strategies for sustainable CFM by combining traditional knowledge with existing scientific knowledge is limited; (iv) a formal institutional arrangement for CFM does not exist; and (v) community members’ access to the hard technology of CFM is limited. Therefore, in addition to legalizing CFM, a formal institutional framework for elaboration, implementation and control of CFM is essential to achieve sustainable CFM in Thailand.     

Financial viability and conservation role of betel leaf based agroforestry: an indigenous hill farming system of Khasia community in Bangladesh

A study was conducted to investigate the cultural and financial management techniques of betel leaf based agroforestry system practiced in or near homegardens of Khasia community in Jaintapur Upazila in the district of Sylhet, Bangladesh. The Khasia is an educated community where 100% of Khasia people were literate, a stunning fact for this ethnic community in Bangladesh. The average family size in the study area was 7.68, with a ration of male and females of 141:100. The homegardens of the Khasia are rich in species composition, which 15 timber species, 22 horticultural species, six medicinal species, 13 annual crops including leafy vegetables, seven species of spices and five species of bamboo were identified along with betel leaf. The Khasia is an economically prosperous community with the minimum family incomes of Tk 4000 per month (Tk. 70=1 US Dollar). Betel leaf based agroforestry is very common being a prevalent source of income. About 95.45% of the households are involved in betel leaf husbandry. The mean annual income from one hectare of betel leaf plantation was estimated to be Tk. 80979. This practice was proven to be a profitable business where the benefit cost ratio was calculated to be 4.47. Moreover, the species composition in the betel leaf plantation area (the forest area once utilized by Khasia for shifting cultivation) was found to be very promising to play the significant role in conservation of biological diversity making the practice a sustainable agroforestry system.     

An approach to achieve sustainable development goals through participatory land and forest conservation: a case study in South Kalimantan Province,Indonesia

The delivery of sustainable development goals (SDGs) through a participatory land and forest conservation initiative was evaluated in South Kalimantan Province, Indonesia. The initiative focused on the rehabilitation of a 410 ha forest that was managed by local villagers. A forest rehabilitation and management initiative was developed through participatory action, establishing a well-managed rubber plantation that provided new livelihood opportunities. Poverty reduction was promoted, evidenced by a reduction in inequality amongst the local community. Between 2010 and 2018 the Gini coefficient of inequality declined from 34.6% to 31.3%, demonstrating a contribution to SDGs 1 (No Poverty) and 10 (Reduced Inequalities). In addition, forest rehabilitation resulted in improved carbon stock and biodiversity management contributing to SDG15 (Life on Land). This was attributed to successful forest rehabilitation and the reduced incidence of forest fires. Cooperation amongst local villagers categorized as living in poor households was improved, facilitated by capacity building. This focused on rubber plantation management, cooperative action, and firefighting activities. This capacity building contributed to the delivery of SDG 17 (Partnerships for the Goals). Results from a socio-economic survey demonstrated that group activities and cooperation amongst stakeholders were essential to improve both livelihoods and forest management practices.     

龙岩市森林生态系统服务价值评价

采用龙岩市2011年森林资源与城乡绿化统计数据,从调节气候、净化大气环境、固碳释氧、涵养水源、保护生物多样性5方面对龙岩市森林生态系统进行价值评估。结果表明,龙岩市林业用地、城区人居林和乡村人居林3个不同地域的森林生态系统产生的生态服务价值分别为2 204.5亿元、1.92亿元和0.72亿元,各项生态服务价值由大到小依次为调节气候、涵养水源、固碳释氧、净化大气环境、保护生物多样性。     

NTFPs and Their Commercialization Issues from the Perspective of Rural Livelihood and the State of Forest Resources: A Study of the Ranibundh Forest Range in West Bengal,India

Forests provide a source of livelihood to all classes of rural people, especially in tribal dominated areas. With the advent of joint forest management concepts and commercial earning prospects from non-timber forest products (NTFPs), it was expected that forests would be best preserved by the villagers who depend on them for a substantial part of their livelihoods. However, in the case of the Ranibundh block in the Bankura district, it was observed that the predominance of private agencies in marketing channels of NTFPs, together with risk of eviction, loss of customary right to access forest resources, low employment prospects, and lack of training about proper management of NTFPs have led to the failure in motivating the forest dwellers to prevent degradation of forest resources. It is suggested that government agencies, producer institutions, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and other strong institutional entities can promote forest preservation when complemented by the granting of forest rights to rural people, the extension of training facilities, and alternative employment prospects.     

On-board computing in forest machinery as a tool to improve skidding operations in South African softwood sawtimber operations

The government of Bangladesh has placed the utmost priority on participatory forestry (PF) since the 1980s, and this approach was commenced in the degraded Sal forest areas through a donor-funded project in 1989. These forest reforms aim to eliminate the main causes of forest depletion as well as alleviate poverty through the participation of local people, who depend on the forests for their livelihoods. This study explores the impact of PF initiatives on the livelihoods of the local ethnic and non-ethnic populations, drawing empirical data from the participatory forestry programs (PFPs). The findings indicate that the most common feature of PFPs were the contribution of financial capital to the participants, whereas other livelihood capitals faced constraints and difficulties. In addition, inequity issues and social capital differences were created between the ethnic and non-ethnic participants, and a lack of commitment by the local Forest Department resulted in PFPs having limited success in creating sustainable livelihoods for the participants. The overall situation revealed that PFPs alone were not sufficient to conserve and develop the Sal forests or assure people's basic needs. Therefore, a long-term-integrated approach by the Forest Department is necessary to address the diversified needs of low-income forest-dependent people in a more sustainable way.     

Valuing Natural Forest Resources: An Application of Contingent Valuation Method on Adaba-Dodola Forest Priority Area,Bale Mountains,Ethiopia

This research employs a contingent valuation method (CVM) to estimate the respondents' willingness to pay (WTP) to gain use and control rights to a natural forest resource at the Adaba-Dodola Forest Priority Area (ADFPA) in the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia. The analysis was based on data collected from 295 households residing in and around the forest resource. Both binary probit and ordered probit models were used to examine socioeconomic factors that determine the respondents' WTP to gain these rights. The estimated mean and median WTP were found to be ETB 24.41 (US$2.54) and ETB 22.14 (US$2.30) annually, respectively. Households with more members, have better exposure to education and training, perceive the need for forest conservation, are member of forest dwellers' association, and who are wealthier in terms of ownership of more cultivated land and livestock are willing to pay more; whereas those households characterized by earning better annual household income, those who got higher starting bid value, and those who live farther away from the prime forest resource are willing to pay less. This can be used to signal that there is a considerable non-market value attached to use and control rights to the natural forest. In particular, membership in official forest user groups has shown a strong and positive relationship with WTP in all the models employed. This implies the approach of participatory management using forest user groups is better both for the sustainability of the forest resource and the livelihoods of the people who depend upon it.     

‘Slippage’ in the Implementation of Forest Policy by Local Officials: A Case Study of a Protected Area Management in Lao PDR

A progressive part of protected area management program in Lao PDR is a land and forest allocation program which contains critical elements that delegate right of land and forest use to local people. This study analyzes the gap between the original intent of the program and its actual implementation by local officials in Phou Xang He protected area, and discusses policy issues that need to be addressed. It appears that several types of non-compliance with regulations by local people have occurred, with local officials tacitly ignoring infractions. By switching viewpoints, however, it appears that the local officials permit these infractions as a way of allowing local people to secure their livelihoods. As constraints on the realities of land and forest use vary widely in and around villages in different locales, there is a need for government to allow local officials flexibility in implementing policies.     

Capacity for Timber Management in Small and Medium Forest Enterprises: A Case Study from the Peruvian Amazon

With the implementation of a new legal framework for more responsible forest management in Peru, private small-medium forest enterprises (SMFEs) have become the most important social actors engaged in commercial forestry in the Peruvian Amazon. Despite the role of SMFEs in contributing to employment and local economic growth, there is little information with respect to their economic performance and capacities. This is a hindrance to efforts aimed at better characterizing this important sector and its influence on the development and conservation of tropical forests. For this study, 29 private SMFEs were surveyed to inventory their capital assets in order to evaluate their capacities to carry out timber management. Results indicate that SMFEs vary greatly in terms of their produced and natural capital assets, and consequently in their forest management capabilities as well. While most SMFEs lack adequate capacity for sustainable forest management, those that had more valuable timber resources and physical infrastructure attained forest certification. SMFE capacities depend greatly on external mechanisms to ensure consistent technical and financial assistance.     

村民自助组织与社区森林恢复与保护的关系

作者从社会人类学的角度,阐述了森林周边社区的村民自助组织是社区森林可持续管理的重要载体的理论依据.作者以西双版纳热带森林恢复与保护项目为案例,深度剖析了村民自助组织的成立的过程和产生的作用.森林的有效管理有赖于当地社区的有效组织和集体行动,村民自助组织是开展集体行动、管理森林资源的一项必要的社会工程.作者认为建立村民自助组织是一项复杂的社会工程,是社区森林管理的必要条件,加强社会工程与森林的恢复与保护的联系,还需要社区组织对森林管理的进一步投入,进一步协调森林资源保护与发展创收活动的矛盾,同时,赋权的过程还需要宏观政策的支持和对村民自助组织的认识的提高.     

Sustainable Forest Management in Tropical Rain Forests

Abstract

In planning of sustainable forest management, economic, environmental and social demands often conflict. Forest management in Southeast Asian tropical dipterocarp forests has been particularly biased towards maximizing immediate economic return from extensive logging. Overexploitation and other forms of uncontrolled land use within these forests have led to the situation where the remaining natural forests, most of them in Indonesia, will be liquidated within the next 10-15 years at the current rate of deforestation. In this paper we present an approach for sustainable forest management planning in which economic, environmental and social sustainability are considered simultaneously in order to define an optimal management strategy from a set of available alternatives.

We carried out a case study within a rain forest logging concession in Indonesian Borneo by using a participatory planning approach involving interviews of the local people, environmental assessment and economic analyses. We used the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) method for resource allocation and priority setting in order to identify an optimal strategy which yields a sustained economic output from timber production, while at the same time being environmentally and socioculturally sustainable. Despite their relatively high costs, strategies involving selective harvesting combined to complete restoration of original dipterocarp stock in logged-over areas were superior in terms of economic, environmental and social sustainability. Priorities set by local communities for the strategies to meet their socioeconomic and cultural needs coincide well with those ensuring the restoration and biodiversity.     

Family Forest Owner Characteristics Shaped by Life Cycle,Cohort, and Period Effects

Understanding differences and similarities among family forest owners is important in the context of forest land conservation. This study assesses similarities and differences in landowners by analyzing life cycle effects, cohort differences, and period-specific events that shape people’s attitudes and behaviors towards their forestland over time. Using data collected by the U.S. Forest Service’s 2013 National Woodland Owner Survey, bivariate, random forest and classification tree analyses were used to examine landowners in terms of demographic cohorts. Some attitudes and behaviors of family forest owners were identified as being a result of life cycle (e.g., recreating on their wooded land, plans to transfer land in the next 5 years), cohort (e.g., education level, help with programs or policies), and period (e.g., wars, economic depressions changing attitudes or behaviors) effects. While many of the attitudes and behaviors are common across cohorts. Understanding the reasons for similarities and differences among landowners could help program and policy developers target the appropriate group of people and achieve the highest success rates for policies and programs.     

林地资源保护管理与生态林业建设的探究

森林资源的过度开发以及对林地资源的保护不够重视,采取的措施不到位等,都将导致林地资源被破坏,而这无疑将对人们赖以生存的自然环境造成破坏。基于此,主要针对林地资源保护以及生态林业的建设进行研究,旨在促进林业的可持续发展,以为其他提供借鉴参考。     

Farm and Village Forest Use Practice in Ekiti State: Analysis of Government Policy and Tenure Issues

This study analyzed the influence of government policy and tenure issues on farm and village forest use practices in Ekiti State, Nigeria. Three rural communities that were still far from urban influence were selected from each of the 16 local government areas of the state. In each community, 20 household heads were selected and interviewed with the aid of a semi-structured matrix. The interviews aimed at the determination of respondents' socioeconomic status, awareness and belief in the effectiveness or otherwise of the forest laws and regulations, land use, tenure and property rights. Results obtained revealed that the awareness of forest laws and regulations cut across the socio-economic categories. Most of these laws and regulations that were considered to be necessary could also constitute disincentives to sustainable forest development. Three types of land tenure niches—private holdings, commons, and government reserves—exist in the state. These led to land fragmentations in which individuals are now left with small holdings. Individuals with small and medium landholdings found it difficult to invest in tree planting; hence, they meet their subsistence use of wood and non-wood forest products from diverse sources. Individuals with large landholdings were found cultivating cash tree crops; timber species were not cultivated though their wildlings were preserved. Also, when land is let or leased out, tenants were not allowed to invest in tree planting on such land.     

高保护价值森林与公益林比较分析

高保护价值森林概念自提出以来受到了广泛的关注与研究,并在我国森林可持续经营体系中得到认可和应用。文中从高保护价值森林和公益林两者所涉及概念的范围、特征和经营原则3个方面进行了全面系统的分析比较。认为在范围上,两者关注层面和对象有所区别;在特征上,两者的推动者和补偿者截然不同;在经营原则上,两者可以互为补充。通过对高保护价值森林和公益林概念与经营原则的比较研究,肯定了高保护价值森林概念对于完善我国公益林经营管理模式的意义,对于我国创新经营发展思路、提高经营水平具有一定的指导意义和较高的参考价值,并在其两者之间探索了一条相互融通的渠道。