Chemical input/output balance for a moderately polluted forest catchment in southern Poland

A four-year study in a forest catchment exposed to a moderate level of anthropogenic pollution indicated heavy accumulation of hydrogen (H⁺), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) and lead (Pb) in the ecosystem and phosphorous (P), potassium (K) and cadmium (Cd) to a lesser extent. Nitrogen, which is also accumulated, is leached mainly as NO₃ ^–, even though the input is dominated by NH₄ ⁺. Magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca) and sodium (Na) are leached from the catchment, presumably due to intensive weathering processes in deeper layers of mineral soil. Chloride ion (Cl^–) is also lost from the ecosystem. The output of sulphate (SO₄ ^2–) with stream water exceeds its input only slightly. Although it appears that the catchment as a whole has a large buffering capacity (average stream water pH=7.43, rainfall pH=4.33), the upper biologically active soil layers are probably more susceptible to acidification and pollution. With constant accumulation of H⁺ and heavy metal ions this may lead to degradation of forest health.     

Spatial variability of soil solution chemistry under Hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) in Tama Hills

A monitoring study on precipitation and soil solution was conducted to analyze soil acidification processes at the Rolling Land Laboratory (RLL), Hachioji, Tokyo based on the spatial variability of the soil solution chemistry around the Hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) trunk. Soil solution samples were taken at various distances from the tree trunks and at various depths. Soil solution pH at the depth of 10 cm decreased to 4.1–4.2 on the downslope side of large tree trunks, presumably due to the heterogeneity of throughfall input and extensive infiltration of acidic stemflow. Ammonium ions brought by throughfall and stemflow were nitrified and provided large amounts of H⁺. Protons were replaced with exchangeable cations. When base cations were depleted, aluminum ion became the dominant cation species. On the average, Ca²⁺ concentration in the soil solutions at the depth of 10 cm decreased from 0.28 mmol_c L^-1 at the reference site to 0.18 mmol_c L^-1 on the downslope side and Mg²⁺ concentration decreased from 0.30 mmol_c L^-1 to 0.15 mmol_c L^-1. Arithmetic mean aluminum concentration at the depth of 10 cm on the downslope side was 0.35 mmol_c L^-1. Here aluminum dissolution was the main acid sink. Based on the spatial variability of the soil solution chemistry, soil solution acidification processes were divided into four stages.     

Effects of forest plantations on rainfall redistribution and erosion in the red soil region of Southern China

To evaluate the effects of different forest plantations on rainfall redistribution, we measured throughfall, stemflow, interception loss, surface runoff and soil loss from July 2004 to September 2005 in the three types of forest plantations Eucommia ulmoides, Vernicia fordii and Pinus massoniana. The results showed that differences in throughfall and stemflow between the three forest plantations were significant (p < 0·05). Throughfall was highest in the V.fordii plantation and stemflow was highest in the E.ulmoides plantation. Throughfall plus stemflow below the E.ulmoides canopy was greater than that underneath the other forest types. Moreover, significant spatial variation in throughfall was observed. Throughfall in P.massoniana was 28·0–39·7% higher at a stem distance < 60 cm or 11·5% lower at a stem distance > 120 cm than in the other forests, but the difference was not significant between E.ulmoides and V.fordii. Moreover, the difference in throughfall at stem distances 60–120 cm was not significant between the different forest plantations. For E.ulmoides, throughfall under the peripheral crown part was 16·1% higher than that close to the stem. In contrast to E.ulmoides, P.massoniana had 26·8% lower throughfall under the peripheral crown part than close to the stem. No significant difference was found in throughfall for the various stem distances underneath V.fordii. Stemflow in E.ulmoides was 2–3 times higher than in the other forests (p < 0·01). Interception loss accounted for 19·9% of gross rainfall for E.ulmoides, 20·8% for V.fordii and 27·2% for P.massoniana. Surface runoff and soil loss differed considerably among the three types of forest plantations. Annual runoff and total soil loss were lowest in the P.massoniana forest and highest in the V.fordii forest. This study indicated that P.massoniana, as a reforestation tree species, had the most positive effect on soil and water conservation among the three forest plantations. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Changes of soil ecological stoichiometric ratios under different land uses in a small catchment of subtropical China

The role of soil elemental ecological stoichiometry in evaluation of nutrient cycling and limitation was not clear in local spatial scale. Thus, characteristic of soil C, N and P stoichiometric ratios and their relationships to land-use and soil properties were analyzed in a small catchment of subtropical China. Results showed that there were constrained soil C:N ratios in a small catchment. Soil C:P and N:P ratios were also constrained at the beginning; but they became variable after 10 years of different land uses. Soil C:N ratios in the small catchment were similar to those at national scale, but soil C:P and N:P ratios were remarkably lower at the local scale. Soil C:P ratios in paddy fields were 5.1–76.9% and 16.0–80.4% higher than those for other land uses in 2000 and 2010, respectively; the corresponding soil N:P ratios were also 3.8–66.7% and 19.1–75.0% higher. Over time, soil C:N ratios increased approximately 19.7–29.6% for all land uses after 10 years of utilization. Soil C:P and N:P ratios also increased for most land uses. Clay content was an important factor influencing soil C:P and N:P ratios. Except for paddy fields, N was still the limiting nutrient in most land uses, evaluating by elemental stoichiometry. Future work should focus on determining direct evidence of C and N limitations and their relationships to elemental stoichiometry in a small catchment.     

固化土集流面无侧限抗压强度影响因素研究

该文采用无侧限抗压强度作为反映指标,对影响固化土强度的剂量、龄期、密度、含水率、凝结时间和养护环境等主要因素进行研究,提出增强土壤固化剂集流面强度的措施。研究结果表明：固化剂集流面的剂量选择12％左右,养护龄期需要7 d以上,压实度控制在0.94以上。在同一密度下含水率为最优含水率的(80±5)%范围内时,固化土的强度达到最大。在混合料拌和好12 h内尽快完成施工。施工结束后,应立刻进行覆盖防蒸发处理,24 h后方可进行洒水或浸水养护。温度和湿度越高越有利于固化剂集流面强度的增长和外观的平整。     

闽南农业小流域土壤反硝化作用研究

土壤反硝化是流域土壤氮损失的重要途径之一。利用乙炔抑制培养法对五川流域内表层土壤的反硝化进行测定,研究发现,闽南农业小流域土壤具有较强的反硝化作用强度,在种植季节土壤平均反硝化作用强度为N 0.1 kg/(hm2.d),最高达到N 0.6 kg/(hm2.d),其中蔬菜地反硝化作用强于其他土地利用类型。反硝化作用同土壤的含水量、温度以及NO3-含量都存在有正相关关系,温度是流域土壤反硝化作用的最主要影响因子。五川流域土壤经由反硝化作用氮损失量占流域施肥量的16%,稍高于国内其他地区。     

茅台水源功能区不同林分类型土壤养分特征

为了探讨茅台水源功能区不同林分类型的土壤养分效应,对茅台水源功能区马尾松林、柏木林和马尾松+柏木混交林3种针叶林土壤养分制征进行研究.结果表明:不同针叶林土壤平均养分存在一定的差异,其中有机质、碱解氮、速效钾质量分数均表现为柏木林＞马尾松+柏木混交林＞马尾松林,有效磷质量分数表现为马尾松+柏木混交林＞马尾松林＞柏木林,而全氮质量分数则表现为马尾松+柏木混交林＞柏木林＞马尾松林.统计分析表明:马尾松林和柏木林及马尾松+柏木混交林的有机质、碱解氮质量分数及pH值差异显著(P＜0.05),柏木林与马尾松+柏木混交林的全氮质量分数和pH值差异也显著(P＜0.05),而3种针叶林的有效磷和速效钾质量分数均不存在显著性差异(P＞0.05).相关分析表明:全氮质量分数、有机质质量分数、碱解氮质量分数、pH值相互之间均呈显著性相关,而速效钾质量分数则与全氮、有机质、碱解氮、有效磷质量分数呈显著性相关.另外,参照土壤养分等级评价标准发现:3种针叶林的有效磷和有机质质量分数较高,均在丰富以上;速效钾质量分数则较低,均在中等以下;其他养分则在很丰富和缺乏之间.     

Changes in soil profile characteristics through cultivation of an upland Vertisol in Zambia

Abstract. Crops grown on virgin upland Vertisols of Zambia, are reported to perform rather poorly. However, subsoiling followed by repeated cultivation over two years apparently improves crop growth. Highest yields were recorded under long-term cultivation (12 years). To evaluate the reasons for these differences in crop response to Vertisol management, physical and hydrodynamic characteristics of soil profiles were studied in three soil management systems. The management systems were: uncultivated or virgin land; land cultivated for two years; and land cultivated for 12 years. The mean soil aggregate size decreased with increased time of cultivation, mostly due to the decrease of the largest sized aggregates. The surface horizon dried more slowly on the long-term cultivation plot. A comparison of the hydraulic conductivities indicated that water intake in the deeper layers improved with increased period in cultivation. Oxygen diffusion measurements showed good aeration at field capacity, to a depth of 0.32m on the long-term cultivation plots, but only to 0.17 m and 0.25 m for 2 years cultivation and virgin plots respectively. Repeated cultivation was beneficial in improving surface soil tilth and in improving subsurface drainage, thus removing the problem of a perched water table which occurred close to the soil surface under natural conditions.     

安徽省大别山区上舍小流域植被根系与土壤抗冲性研究

 采用标准地调查方法,对大别山区上舍小流域不同植被类型根系,在040 cm土壤深度范围内按照10cm间隔分层采样,室内测定不同径级（<0.5,0.5～1.0,1.0～2.0和2.0～5.0mm）根系生物量和根系长度,同时在各标准地根系相似地段内,采用C.C.索波列抗冲仪,在0～40 cm深度范围内按照10cm间隔分层测定土壤的抗冲性。结果表明:植被根系主要分布在0～40 cm土层内,表土层根量最大,根径<1.0mm的细根在根长上占有绝对优势;同一植被类型表土层土壤抗冲能力大于心土层;植物根系,尤其是根径<1.0mm的细根具有较强的固持土壤功能,细根长、根质量、根密度与土壤抗冲指数之间的相关系数分别为0.817 3、0.715 9和0.6434,可知,细根长是影响土壤抗冲性的关键因子;不同植被类型土壤的抗冲性与土壤非毛管孔隙度具有很高的相关性,表明森林植被的固土功能是通过根系改善土壤的物理性质,创造具有抗冲能力的生物土壤复合体结构实现的。     

Modelling soil erosion and sediment yield at a catchment scale: the case of Masinga catchment,Kenya

Development of improved soil erosion and sediment yield prediction technology is required to provide catchment stakeholders with the tools they need to evaluate the impact of various management strategies on soil loss and sediment yield in order to plan for the optimal use of the land. In this paper, a newly developed approach is presented to predict the sources of sediment reaching the stream network within Masinga, a large‐scale rural catchment in Kenya. The study applies the revised universal soil loss equation (RUSLE) and a developed hillslope sediment delivery distributed (HSDD) model embedded in a geographical information system (GIS). The HSDD model estimates the sediment delivery ratio (SDR) on a cell‐by‐cell basis using the concept of runoff travel time as a function of catchment characteristics. The model performance was verified by comparing predicted and measured plot runoff and sediment yield. The results show a fairly good relationship between predicted and measured sediment yield (R²=0·82). The predicted results show that the developed modelling approach can be used as a major tool to estimate spatial soil erosion and sediment yield at a catchment scale. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

亚热带米槠次生林和杉木人工林林冠截留特征比较

通过对福建三明地区米槠次生林和杉木人工林林内穿透雨和树干茎流进行对比分析,研究2种林分类型对降雨再分配规律的影响及其关键影响因素。在研究区2种林分内分别选取了3个20m×20m标准样地,同时设置了穿透雨和树干茎流收集装置,每场降雨后测定相应的水量。结果表明:研究期内年降雨量为1 706.6mm,米槠次生林和杉木人工林林内穿透雨量没有显著差异,总穿透雨量分别为1 204.0mm和1 289.9mm,分别占年降雨的70.6%和75.6%;米槠次生林树干茎流量显著高于杉木人工林(p0.05),两者的树干茎流率分别为4.8%和2.7%;米槠次生林和杉木人工林的林冠截留率分别为24.7%和21.8%。林内穿透雨量与林冠郁闭度和叶面积指数呈负相关关系,说明林分郁闭度越高则穿透雨量越少。米槠次生林和杉木人工林林冠截留的差异主要受林冠开阔度和树皮结构的影响,因此树种差异显著改变了森林生态系统降水再分配模式。     

Changes in soil aggregate‐associated enzyme activities and nutrients under long‐term chemical fertilizer applications in a phosphorus‐limited paddy soil

Paddy soils in subtropical China are usually deficient in phosphorus (P) and require regular application of chemical fertilizers. This study evaluated the effects of chemical fertilizers on the distribution of soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (N) and available P, and on the activity of the associated enzymes in bulk soil and aggregates. Surface soils (0–20 cm) were collected from a 24‐yr‐old field experiment with five treatments: unfertilized control (CK), N only (N), N and potassium (NK), N and P (NP), and N, P and K (NPK). Undisturbed bulk soils were separated into >2, 1–2, 0.25–1, 0.053–0.25 and <0.053 mm aggregate classes using wet sieving. Results showed that both NP‐ and NPK‐treated soils significantly increased mean weight diameter of aggregates, SOC, available P in bulk soil and aggregates, as compared to CK. Most SOC and total N adhered to macro‐aggregates (>0.25 mm), which accounted for 64–81% of SOC and 54–82% of total N in bulk soil. The activities of invertase and acid phosphatase in the 1–2 mm fraction were the highest under NPK treatment. The highest activity of urease was observed in the <0.053 mm fraction under NP treatment. Soil organic carbon and available P were major contributors to variation of enzyme activities at the aggregate scale. In conclusion, application of NP or NPK fertilizers promoted the formation of soil aggregates, nutrient contents and activities of associated enzymes in P‐limited paddy soils, and thus enhanced soil quality.     

南亚热带森林演替过程土壤水分、有机质和交换性阳离子的变化格局

Information on the distribution patterns of soil water content （SWC）, soil organic matter （SOM）, and soil exchangeable cations （SEC） is important for managing forest ecosystems in a sustainable manner. This study investigated how SWC, SOM, and SEC were influenced in forests along a successional gradient, including a regional climax （monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forest, or MEBF）, a transitional forest （coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forest, or MF）, and a pioneer forest （coniferous Masson pine （Pinus rnassoniana） forest, or MPF） of the Dinghushan Biosphere Reserve in the subtropical region of southern China. SWC, SOM, and SEC excluding Ca^2＋ were found to increase in the soil during forest succession, being highest in the top soil layer （0 to 15 cm depth） except for Na^＋. The differences between soil layers were largest in MF. This finding also suggested that the nutrients were enriched in the topsoil when they became increasingly scarce in the soil. There were no significant differences （P = 0.05） among SWC, SOM, and SEC. A linear, positive correlation was found between SWC and SOM. The correlation between SOM and cation exchange capacity （CEC） was statistically significant, which agreed with the theory that the most important factor determining SEC is SOM. The ratio of K^＋ to Na^＋ in the topsoil was about a half of that in the plants of each forest. MF had the lowest exchangeable Ca^2＋ concentration among the three forests and Ca^2＋：K^＋ in MPF was two times higher than that in MF. Understanding the changes of SWC, SOM, and CEC during forest succession would be of great help in protecting all three forests in southern China.     

Participatory soil and water conservation planning using a financial analysis tool in the West Usambara highlands of Tanzania

Despite decades of soil and water conservation (SWC) efforts in Tanzania, the adoption of the recommended SWC measures by farmers is minimal. In the past, SWC plans did not incorporate farmers' knowledge, and the economics of SWC was not given much attention at the planning stage. This research evaluated the applicability of two tools for participatory soil erosion mapping using farmers' indicators of soil erosion and financial analysis of SWC measures at the planning stage. The two tools were evaluated in Kwalei catchment in the West Usambara highlands, Tanzania. The participatory soil erosion‐mapping tool uses farmers' indicators of soil erosion to identify, classify and map soil erosion at the catchment level. The financial analysis tool involves farmers in a stepwise analysis of the costs and benefits of SWC measures before the implementation. The erosion‐mapping tool increased farmers' awareness on the severity of soil erosion problems, and they realised the need for SWC plans at both field and catchment scales. With the financial analysis tool farmers participated in the cost and benefits analysis and were able to select SWC options that were feasible under their socio‐economic situation. The two tools were able to demonstrate that farmers' participation in SWC planning increases the acceptance of SWC measures because they solve problems that are perceived by themselves. The financial analysis tool demonstrated how farmers could make selection of SWC measures that are feasible under their biophysical and economic condition if they are informed about the costs and benefits. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

土壤固化剂集流面不同施工工艺比较

土壤固化剂以土壤为固结对象,具有就地取材、减少砂石量和节省工程造价等优点,在集雨工程特别是集流面建设中具有广阔的应用前景。该文在提出固化剂集流面施工工艺分类的基础上,阐述了干硬性－整体施工－固化剂浆液收光、干硬性－整体施工－自然收光、干硬性－砌块施工、塑性－整体施工－自然收光等4种不同施工工艺的技术要求。通过测定集流面的集流效率和粗糙系数,认为固化剂集流面的集流效率达到90％以上,表面粗糙系数在0.011～0.014之间。与混凝土集流面比较,固化剂集流面的建造成本可节约40％以上。试验结果表明：砌块施工工艺在未来固化剂集流面的发展应用中具有重要的地位和价值;单一用途的集流面应考虑塑性施工工艺;表面采用固化剂浆液收光有利于降低集流面的粗糙系数和表面干缩裂缝。     

Changes in the chemical properties of acid soil and aggregate stability in the whole profile under long-term management history

ABSTRACT

The effects of long-term (1959–2005) liming in combination with cattle manure application on the chemical properties and aggregate stability of acid soil were investigated in the whole soil profile to a 100 cm depth. Investigations were performed in a long-term liming and fertilizing field trial at Vezaiciai Branch of Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry situated in West Lithuania. The soil of the study site is Bathygleyic Distric Glossic Retisol (WRB 2014) with a texture of moraine loam. Acid soil had been periodically limed and manured at different intensity for 47 years. The experiment involved the following treatments: (1) unlimed and unfertilized (control); (2) unlimed and 60 t ha^?1 manure; (3) limed and unfertilized; and (4) limed and 60 t ha^?1 manure. During the 47-year period, liming was performed using pulverized limestone at a rate 1.0 (by hydrolytic soil acidity) every 7 years. During the whole study period, the soil received 38.7–36.5 t ha^?1 CaCO₃; 840 t ha^?1 cattle manure, 2740 kg ha^?1 mineral nitrogen; 3030 kg ha^?1 phosphorus and 3810?kg?ha^?1 potassium. The data showed that long-term (47 years) periodic liming of different intensities in combination with cattle manure application significantly changed the chemical properties of the whole soil profile. The soil acidification was neutralized in the topsoil and subsoil to the 60?cm depth when the soil had been systematically limed with 1.0 rate every 7 years in combination with 60?t?ha^?1 manure application every 3–4 years. Periodic long-term liming in combination with manuring had a positive effect on the improvement of chemical properties of acid soil profile in the ElB₁ and ElB₂ horizons. The data of the soil structure in the topsoil and subsoil showed that such liming practice together with manuring had a positive effect on soil aggregate stability.     

施用绿肥条件下减施化肥对土壤养分及持水供水能力的影响

以长期定位试验为基础,设置7个紫云英和化肥施用配比试验处理,以探索施用绿肥情况下减施化肥对土壤养分、持水和供水能力的影响。结果表明:在翻压紫云英条件下,即使不施化肥土壤氮也可基本得到满足,应适量施用化学钾肥,必须合理施用磷肥,以保证土壤全量和速效养分得到平衡和持续供给,化肥施用量减少未显著降低水稻产量;土壤持水、供水能力在处理间的趋势表现为:紫云英+40%化肥紫云英+60%化肥紫云英+80%化肥、紫云英+100%化肥单施100%化肥、单施紫云英CK,与CK相比,其它6个处理田间持水量提高了1.6%~15.4%,有效含水量增幅更大,平均提高1.5%~30.5%,说明紫云英化肥配施能显著提高土壤的持水、供水能力,且化肥施用量越少效果越好,而单施化肥或单施紫云英效果有限。因此,紫云英施用量一定时(22 500 kg/hm~2),化肥施用量应减少至40%甚至更低。     

Biogeochemistry of aluminum in a forest catchment in the Czech Republic impacted by atmospheric inputs of strong acids

The Lysina catchment in the Czech Republic was studied to investigate the biogeochemical response of Al to high loadings of acidic deposition. The catchment supports Norway spruce plantations and is underlain by granite and podzolic soil. Atmospheric deposition to the site was characterized by high H⁺ and SO₄ ^2– fluxes in throughfall. The volume-weighted average concentration of total Al (Al_t) was 28 mol L^–1 in the O horizon soil solution. About 50% of Al_t in the O horizon was in the form of potentially-toxic inorganic monomeric Al (Al_i). In the E horizon, Al_t increased to 71 mol L^–1, and Al_i comprised 80% of Al_t. The concentration of Al_t (120 mol L^–1) and the fraction of Al_i (85%) increased in the lower mineral soil due to increases in Al_i and decreases in organic monomeric Al (Al_o). Shallow ground water was less acidic and had lower Al_t concentration (29 mol L^–1). The volume-weighted average concentration of Al_t was extremely high in stream water (60 mol L^–1) with Al_i accounting for about 60% of Al_t. The major species of Al_i in stream water were fluorocomplexes (Al-F) and aquo Al³⁺. Soil solutions in the root zone were undersaturated with respect to all Al-bearing mineral phases. However, stream water exhibited Al_i concentrations close to solubility with jurbanite. Acidic waters and elevated Al concentrations reflected the limited supply of basic cations on the soil exchange complex and slow weathering, which was unable to neutralize atmospheric inputs of strong acids.     

江西省雨水、灌溉水及渗漏水中的硫对土壤硫的影响

Ten rainfall and irrigation water-collecting posts were set up in different ecotype districts of Jiangxi Province,China,to quarterly measure S content in rainfall and irrgation water.A rasinwater chemical composition-collecting device was used to collect the sulphur in rainfall,and the amount of sulphur adsorbed on the resin column in the device was determined.The soil percolating water was gathered using 6 lysimeters built up according to the profile sequence of the red soil derived from red sandstone and the red soil derived from Quaternary red clay,separately.On the lysimeters peanuts,soybean and radish were grown in rotation.Two treatments were designed:without S addition and with S additin at a rate of 14kg S ha^-1,The SO4^2- contents in rainfall,irrigation water and soil percolating water were determined by the turbidimetry.The results in 1997 showed that the average annual S content in rainwater ws 28.13kg S ha^-1.the average S content in irrigation water was 1.7mg S L^-1,and the average content of SO4^2- in soil percolation water was 2.30kg Sha^-1 year^-1 and 4.70 kg Sha^-1 year^-1 in treatments without and with sulphur application,respectively,In Jiangxi Province,apart from the losses by runoff and leaching,the sulphur in rainfall avaliable to crops is 7.3kg S ha^-1 year^-1 and additional S application is required.When rice is grown.however,irrigation water can suply 6.9kg S ha^-1,which,along with the sulphur in rainfall,cal almost meet the S requirement of one cropping of rice.     

Changes in soil properties following shrub encroachment in the semiarid Inner Mongolian grasslands of China

ABSTRACT

Shrub encroachment is very common in the semiarid regions of China. However, surprisingly little research has been conducted to evaluate the effects of shrubs on soil properties in these regions compared with other regions in the world. Three sites, one without shrub (state 1), one with 13% shrub coverage (state 2), and the third one with 40% shrub coverage (state 3) in the semiarid Inner Mongolian grasslands were selected to investigate the effects of the shrub Caragana microphylla Lam on soil properties. Soil samples were collected from three sites to evaluate the changes of bulk density (BD), grain size distribution, aggregate stability, soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), and soil water content (SWC) with the development of shrub encroachment. The results showed that BD and soil sand declined, and silt, aggregate >2 mm and the mean weight diameter (MWD) rose from state 1 to state 3, especially in 20–60 cm depths. With the shrub encroachment, the content of SOC and TN increased, and especially, the increase trends were more obvious in the deeper soil than in the surface soil. SWC increased with the development of shrub encroachment at 20–60 cm depths. Greater and deeper water infiltration existed after heavy rainfall in states 2 and 3, suggesting that macropore ?ow appeared in shrub encroachment sites. All these results indicated that shrub encroachment improved soil physicochemical properties, particularly in deep soil.