Crop load affects maximum daily trunk shrinkage of plum trees

We studied the effects of low fruit load (3-4 fruits cm(-2) of trunk cross-sectional area (TCSA), and high fruit load (6-7 fruits cm(-2) TCSA) on maximum daily trunk shrinkage (MDS) and trunk growth rates (TGR) over two seasons in plum (Prunus salicina Lindell) trees receiving full irrigation or deficit irrigation. Seasonal changes in MDS and TGR were compared with those in midday stem water potential (Psi(s)) and leaf stomatal conductance (g (s)). Crop load increased g (s) in fully irrigated trees approaching harvest. Although crop load did not affect plant water status in either watering regime, there were considerable differences in both MDS and TGR as a function of crop load. Compared with low-cropping [corrected] trees, MDS was 34% higher and TGR was 48% lower in high-cropping [corrected] trees. The differential responses of MDS and Psi(s) to crop load were a consequence of a higher MDS for a given Psi(s) in the high-cropping trees compared with the low-cropping trees. There was a linear increase in MDS with crop load, with a slope of 15.2 microm MPa(-1) per unit increment of crop load. In the fully irrigated trees, day-to-day variations in MDS were related to evaporative demand; however, the slope of the relationship between MDS and evaporative demand increased with crop load, indicating that different reference equations must be used to adjust for tree crop load when using MDS to determine plant water status and irrigation requirements.     

Daily sap flow and maximum daily trunk shrinkage measurements for diagnosing water stress in early maturing peach trees during the post-harvest period

We compared the sensitivity of two continuously recorded plant-based water stress indicators (sap flow, SF, and maximum daily trunk shrinkage, MDS) to detect changes in the water status of 4-year-old early maturing peach trees (Prunus persica (L.) Batsch cv. Flordastar grafted on GF-677 peach rootstock) during a cycle of deficit irrigation and recovery. The feasibility of obtaining SF and MDS reference equations for use in irrigation scheduling during the post-harvest period was also studied in trees irrigated in excess of crop water requirements. We found that MDS was a more sensitive and reliable detector of changes in plant water status than SF, making it a more precise tool for irrigation scheduling. Baseline relationships between SF or MDS and the climatic variables (air temperature, vapor pressure deficit (VPD) and crop reference evapotranspiration (ETo)) were established, despite some scatter in the data. Among the climatic variables, SF correlated more closely with ETo, whereas MDS correlated more closely with mean daily air temperature (T (m)). The fits of the regressions between MDS and ETo, midday air temperature and T (m) for individual periods were better than those obtained in the overall regressions, confirming that daily stem diameter variations must be considered not only in the context of plant water status but also in the context of plant carbon status.     

The generation of longitudinal maturation stress in wood is not dependent on diurnal changes in diameter of trunk

A hypothetical mechanism for the generation of maturation stress in wood was tested experimentally. The hypothesis was that the maturation stress could partly originate in a physical mechanism related to daily changes in water pressure and associated diurnal strains. The matrix of lignin and hemicellulose, deposited in the cell wall during the night, would be put in compression by the effect of water tension during the next day. The cellulose framework, crystallizing during the day, would be put in tension by the decrease in tension at night and subsequent cell-wall swelling. This was tested on young saplings of sugi and beech. Half of the saplings were submitted to continuous lighting, which canceled diurnal strains. Saplings were tilted 40 degrees, and their uprighting movement was measured. The uprighting movement is directly due to the production of reaction wood and the concomitant development of large longitudinal maturation stress. It occurred in the continuously lighted plants at least as much as in control plants. We conclude that the generation of longitudinal maturation stress in tension or compression wood is not directly related to variations in water pressure and diurnal strains.     

三种彩色树对水分胁迫的生理响应

以紫叶风箱果、金叶榆、密枝红叶李三种彩色树2 a生植株为试验材料,测定水分胁迫下叶片可溶性糖含量、丙二醛含量、叶片含水量以及生长情况等生理指标,结果表明:金叶榆具有较强的耐水浸能力,紫叶风箱果和密枝红叶李耐水浸能力较弱。紫叶风箱果的抗旱性略好于金叶榆和密枝红叶李,但总体来看,三种彩色树抗旱性差别不大。     

Effects of water stress on irradiance acclimation of leaf traits in almond trees

Photosynthetic acclimation to highly variable local irradiance within the tree crown plays a primary role in determining tree carbon uptake. This study explores the plasticity of leaf structural and physiological traits in response to the interactive effects of ontogeny, water stress and irradiance in adult almond trees that have been subjected to three water regimes (full irrigation, deficit irrigation and rain-fed) for a 3-year period (2006-08) in a semiarid climate. Leaf structural (dry mass per unit area, N and chlorophyll content) and photosynthetic (maximum net CO(2) assimilation, A(max), maximum stomatal conductance, g(s,max), and mesophyll conductance, g(m)) traits and stem-to-leaf hydraulic conductance (K(s-l)) were determined throughout the 2008 growing season in leaves of outer south-facing (S-leaves) and inner northwest-facing (NW-leaves) shoots. Leaf plasticity was quantified by means of an exposure adjustment coefficient (ε=1-X(NW)/X(S)) for each trait (X) of S- and NW-leaves. Photosynthetic traits and K(s-l) exhibited higher irradiance-elicited plasticity (higher ε) than structural traits in all treatments, with the highest and lowest plasticity being observed in the fully irrigated and rain-fed trees, respectively. Our results suggest that water stress modulates the irradiance-elicited plasticity of almond leaves through changes in crown architecture. Such changes lead to a more even distribution of within-crown irradiance, and hence of the photosynthetic capacity, as water stress intensifies. Ontogeny drove seasonal changes only in the ε of area- and mass-based N content and mass-based chlorophyll content, while no leaf age-dependent effect was observed on ε as regards the physiological traits. Our results also indicate that the irradiance-elicited plasticity of A(max) is mainly driven by changes in leaf dry mass per unit area, in g(m) and, most likely, in the partitioning of the leaf N content.     

Root growth potential as an indicator of drought stress history

Container-grown quiescent Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca (Beissn.) Franco) seedlings were air dried to plant water potentials of -0.2, -2.2 or -3.8 MPa (unstressed, moderate, and severe stress treatments, respectively). Trees from each treatment were either placed in root mist chambers held at 10, 20, or 28 degrees C for 28 days and root growth potential (RGP) and plant water potential (PWP) measured weekly, or potted in a 1/1 mix of peat and vermiculite, watered only once, and height growth and survival recorded after 10 weeks in an unheated greenhouse. Root growth potential of unstressed trees was greater than that of moderately stressed trees at all temperatures. Root growth potential of severely stressed trees was zero. Predawn plant water potentials of unstressed and moderately stressed trees were initially high, fell to -0.5 to -0.8 MPa, and then increased. Predawn plant water potential of severely stressed trees declined continuously over the 28-day experiment. Survival and height growth of the severely stressed trees were reduced compared to the unstressed and moderately stressed trees. Among the root growth potential measurements, RGP measured after 7 days at 10 degrees C was most sensitive to drought stress history and revealed differences in vigor that were not apparent from the survival and height growth data.     

Factors involved in alleviating water stress by partial crop removal in pear trees

We studied the relief of water stress associated with fruit thinning in pear (Pyrus communis L.) trees during drought to determine what mechanisms, other than stomatal adjustment, were involved. Combinations of control irrigation (equal to crop water use less effective rainfall) and deficit irrigation (equal to 20% of control irrigation), fruit load (unthinned and thinned to 40 fruits per tree) and root pruning (pruned and unpruned) treatments were applied to pear (cv. 'Conference') trees during Stage II of fruit development. Daily patterns of midday stem water potential (Psi(stem)) and leaf conductance to water vapor (g(l)) of deficit-irrigated trees differed after fruit thinning. In response to fruit thinning, gl progressively declined with water stress until 30 days after fruit thinning and then leveled off, whereas the effects of decreased fruit load on Psi(stem) peaked 30-40 days after fruit thinning and then tended to decline. Soil water depletion was significantly correlated with fruit load during drought. Our results indicate that stomatal adjustment and the resulting soil water conservation were the factors determining the Psi(stem) response to fruit thinning. However, these factors could not explain differences in daily patterns between g(l) and Psi(stem) after fruit thinning. In all cases, effects of root pruning treatments on Psi(stem) in deficit-irrigated trees were transitory (Psi(stem) recovered from root pruning in less than 30 days), but the recovery of Psi(stem) after root pruning was faster in trees with low fruit loads. This behavior is compatible with the concept that the water balance (reflected by Psi(stem) values) was better in trees with low fruit loads compared with unthinned trees, perhaps because more carbon was available for root growth. Thus, a root growth component is hypothesized as a mechanism to explain the bimodal Psi(stem) response to fruit thinning during drought.     

Sap flow index as an indicator of plant water status

Night and especially predawn tree water status is an important indicator of drought stress in trees. Leaf water potential (LWP) is frequently used as a measure of tree water status and hence drought stress; however, there are difficulties associated with sampling foliage from tall trees and determining LWP automatically. The current study was undertaken to determine whether sap flow index (SFI), which can be automatically and continuously recorded even during very low flows, can be used to estimate drought stress in trees caused by dry air under non-limiting soil water conditions. We made simultaneous measurements of LWP, heat pulse velocity (HPV) and SFI on apple trees (Malus domestica Borkh.) in the semiarid climate of southern Ukraine over several growing seasons. Predawn values of LWP were highly correlated with SFI. Over the range of low sap flow rates occurring at nighttime, where other methods of measuring sap flow are not sensitive, the SFI method was linear and very sensitive. Additional information about tree water status was obtained by comparing nighttime and daytime values of SFI. The ratio of predawn SFI to midday SFI and the period between the two daily SFI maxima (the first SFI peak occurred in the morning and the second peak occurred in the evening on cloudless days) can be used to characterize internal plant water balance. Although the daily course of SFI was variable, specific patterns were identified that reflected particular stages in the development of plant drought stress. An "air-drought-stress curve" was used to characterize the development of water stress in trees subjected to air drought during the growing season.     

Use of water stress integral to evaluate relationships between soil moisture,plant water stress and stand productivity in young Douglas-fir trees

Water stress integral (WSI) is a method of assessing cumulative plant water stress over a chosen period of time. While the technique has been used in other tree species, it has not been applied for reforestation projects. In this study we used the WSI approach for newly planted Douglas-fir in the Pacific Northwest (USA), where the Mediterranean climate, plant community development, and competition for water all play key roles in the success of establishment efforts. In this study, previously reported seedling growth, xylem water potential, and soil moisture data were utilized to provide direct correlations between Douglas-fir productivity, soil water availability and WSI. For each growing season, a strong relationship between WSI and volume growth as well as a strong linear relationship between WSI and soil moisture measured during mid-August was found. On average, for each reduction of 0.01 cm³ cm^?3 in soil moisture measured during mid-August, Douglas-fir seedling volume growth decreased by 5.6 and 7.7% in the first and second growing seasons, respectively. Preserving soil moisture until early-August through the judicial application of vegetation management regimes was critical for maximizing stand productivity. Based on these results, a single evaluation of soil volumetric water content during early-August can be used as a predictor of stand productivity during the initial two seasons of forest establishment.     

Tree water storage and its diurnal dynamics related to sap flow and changes in stem volume in old-growth Douglas-fir trees

Diurnal and seasonal tree water storage was studied in three large Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii [Mirb.] Franco) trees at the Wind River Canopy Crane Research site. Changes in water storage were based on measurements of sap flow and changes in stem volume and tissue water content at different heights in the stem and branches. We measured sap flow by two variants of the heat balance method (with internal heating in stems and external heating in branches), stem volume with electronic dendrometers, and tissue water content gravimetrically. Water storage was calculated from the differences in diurnal courses of sap flow at different heights and their integration. Old-growth Douglas-fir trees contained large amounts of free water: stem sapwood was the most important storage site, followed by stem phloem, branch sapwood, branch phloem and needles. There were significant time shifts (minutes to hours) between sap flow measured at different positions within the transport system (i.e., stem base to shoot tip), suggesting a highly elastic transport system. On selected fine days between late July and early October, when daily transpiration ranged from 150 to 300 liters, the quantity of stored water used daily ranged from 25 to 55 liters, i.e., about 20% of daily total sap flow. The greatest amount of this stored water came from the lower stem; however, proportionally more water was removed from the upper parts of the tree relative to their water storage capacity. In addition to lags in sap flow from one point in the hydrolic pathway to another, the withdrawal and replacement of stored water was reflected in changes in stem volume. When point-to-point lags in sap flow (minutes to hours near the top and stem base, respectively) were considered, there was a strong linear relationship between stem volume changes and transpiration. Volume changes of the whole tree were small (equivalent to 14% of the total daily use of stored water) indicating that most stored water came from the stem and from its inelastic (sapwood) tissues. Whole tree transpiration can be maintained with stored water for about a week, but it can be maintained with stored water from the upper crown alone for no more than a few hours.     

Spatial variations in xylem sap flux density in the trunk of orchard-grown,mature mango trees under changing soil water conditions

Circumferential and radial variations in xylem sap flux density in trunks of 13-year-old mango (Mangifera indica L.) trees were investigated with Granier sap flow sensor probes under limiting and non-limiting soil water conditions. Under non-limiting soil water conditions, circumferential variation was substantial, but there was no apparent relationship between sap flux density and aspect (i.e., the radial position of the sensor probes on the trunk relative to the compass). Hourly sap flux densities over 24 hours at different aspects were highly pair-wise correlated. The relationships between different aspects were constant during well-watered periods but highly variable under changing soil water conditions. Sap flux density showed marked radial variation within the trunk and a substantial flux was observed at the center of the trunk. For each selected aspect on each tree, changes in sap flux densities over time at different depths were closely correlated, so flux at a particular depth could be extrapolated as a multiple of flux from 0 to 2 cm beneath the cambium. However, depth profiles of sap flux density differed between trees and even between aspects within a tree, and also varied in an unpredictable manner as soil water conditions changed. Nevertheless, over a period of non-limiting soil water conditions, depth profiles remained relatively constant. Based on the depth profiles obtained during these periods, a method is described for calculating total sap flow in a mango tree from sap flux density at 0-2 cm beneath the cambium. Total daily sap flows obtained were consistent with water use estimated from soil water balance.     

树干注药后阿维菌素在枣树体内的传导分布及消长动态

为了明确树干滴注林果注干杀虫剂后阿维菌素在枣树体内的分布动态,以金丝小枣Ziziphus jujube树为试材,采用高效液相色谱法,测定不同高度不同方位叶片、枝条木质部和韧皮部及枣果中的阿维菌素含量。结果表明:树干注药后,阿维菌素在枣树体内具有良好的吸收、传导性能,其总残留量在树体不同部位的含量随时间推移均呈现先上升后下降的趋势,至注药70 d后各部位总含量分布趋于稳定。各个取样时期,阿维菌素含量从大到小依次为叶片,枝条木质部,枝条韧皮部;用药2 d时,三者间差异达到最大值,后期三者间差异逐渐减小;树冠上层叶片、枝条木质部和韧皮部中阿维菌素含量较树冠下层高,以上层南部最高。注药后105 d时枣果中的阿维菌素含量为0. 008 mg/kg,显著低于0. 01 mg/kg的标准,建议用阿维菌素注干药剂防治枣树害虫时,注药时间距枣果采收期一般应大于105 d。     

Understorey vegetation as an indicator of water content in till soils in Finnish Lapland

Artificial regeneration of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) has been applied to a variety of forest site in Lapland. Occasional failures in regeneration have been observed on sites with high soil moisture contents and originally dominated by Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst). Understorey vegetation was studied on four naturally pine-dominated and eight spruce-dominated sites to determine suitable indicator plants for assessing soil moisture regimes. Soil moisture contents were estimated using the in situ dielectric measurements with radar surface arrival detection targeted to a depth of 0-50 cm. The abundance and frequence of plant species were analysed using logistic regression. The most reliable indicators were found to be Stereocaulon and Cladonia lichens for the dry regime (θv<25%), and Polytrichum commune Hedw. and Carex globularis L. for the wet regime (θv>25%). It was concluded that the indicator plants found in this study provide an alternative to the traditional Finnish forest site type approach in recognizing high soil moisture regimes.     

Tree growth as indicator of tree vitality and of tree reaction to environmental stress: a review

The intensive monitoring plots (Level II) of ICP Forests serve to examine the effects of air pollution and other stress factors on forest condition, including tree vitality. However, tree vitality cannot be measured directly. Indicators, such as tree growth or crown transparency, may instead be used. Tree growth processes can be ranked by order of importance in foliage growth, root growth, bud growth, storage tissue growth, stem growth, growth of defence compounds and reproductive growth. Under stress photosynthesis is reduced and carbon allocation is altered. Stem growth may be reduced early on as it is not directly vital to the tree. Actual growth must be compared against a reference growth, such as the growth of trees without the presumed stress, the growth of presumed healthy trees, the growth in a presumed stress-free period or the expected growth derived from models. Several examples from intensive monitoring plots in Switzerland illustrate how tree-growth reactions to environmental stresses may serve as vitality indicator. Crown transparency and growth can complement each other. For example, defoliation by insects becomes first visible in crown transparency while stem growth reaction occurs with delay. On the other hand, extreme summer drought as observed in large parts of Europe in 2003 affects stem growth almost immediately, while foliage reduction becomes only visible months later. Residuals of tree growth models may also serve as indicators of changed environmental conditions. Certain stresses, such as drought or insect defoliation cause immediate reactions and are not detectable in five-year growth intervals. Therefore, annual or inter-annual stem growth should be assessed in long-term monitoring plots. An erratum to this article can be found at     

树干注射法防治果树主要害虫研究

利用40％氧化乐果EC等几种药剂，采用非常规方法——踏板式喷雾器树干注射法防治果树蚧壳虫、叶螨等害虫。结果表明，各药剂树干注射对蚧壳虫均有较好的防效，其中以40％氧化乐果EC、25％阿克泰水分散剂、10％吡虫啉可湿性粉剂的防效最好，明显优于其它几种药剂，药后20d的防效分别为92．4％、90.0％、85.0％.     

Regulation of transpirational water loss in Quercus suber trees in a Mediterranean-type ecosystem

Sap flux density in branches, leaf transpiration, stomatal conductance and leaf water potentials were measured in 16-year-old Quercus suber L. trees growing in a plantation in southern Portugal to understand how evergreen Mediterranean trees regulate water loss during summer drought. Leaf specific hydraulic conductance and leaf gas exchange were monitored during the progressive summer drought to establish how changes along the hydraulic pathway influence shoot responses. As soil water became limiting, leaf water potential, stomatal conductance and leaf transpiration declined significantly. Predawn leaf water potential reflected soil water potential measured at 1-m depth in the rhizospheres of most trees. The lowest predawn leaf water potential recorded during this period was -1.8 MPa. Mean maximum stomatal conductance declined from 300 to 50 mmol m(-2) s(-1), reducing transpiration from 6 to 2 mmol m(-2) s(-1). Changes in leaf gas exchange were attributed to reduced soil water availability, increased resistances along the hydraulic pathway and, hence, reduced leaf water supply. There was a strong coupling between changes in soil water content and stomatal conductance as well as between stomatal conductance and leaf specific hydraulic conductance. Despite significant seasonal differences among trees in predawn leaf water potential, stomatal conductance, leaf transpiration and leaf specific hydraulic conductance, there were no differences in midday leaf water potentials. The strong regulation of changes in leaf water potential in Q. suber both diurnally and seasonally is achieved through stomatal closure, which is sensitive to changes in both liquid and vapor phase conductance. This sensitivity allows for optimization of carbon and water resource use without compromising the root-shoot hydraulic link.     

Clonal variation of Populus tremuloides responses to diurnal drought stress

We have developed an automated microprocessor controlled system for subjecting hydroponically grown plants to drought. Pumps and valves were used to move nutrient solutions into and out of a system of culture vessels in a growth chamber to provide periods of drought. Drought conditions were obtained by exposing the roots of hydroponically grown clones of aspen, Populus tremuloides Michx., to air in culture vessels temporarily emptied of nutrient medium. Over a 3-week period, the daily duration of drought was increased from 0 to 6 h. During this period, the plants became increasingly tolerant to drought, as shown by a decreasing propensity to wilt. All three clones sustained diurnal drought periods of 6 h for up to 5 weeks without detectable deterioration of health. Typical drought stress symptoms were observed including inhibition of growth, increased tissue amino acid content, and decreased water, solute, and turgor potentials in young leaves. In all clones, control plants had leaf water potentials between -1.0 and -1.6 MPa, whereas leaf water potentials of drought-treated plants were significantly lower, ranging from -1.7 to -3.0 MPa. Only one of the clones showed a significant decrease in leaf solute potential in response to drought. The decrease in leaf solute potential paralleled the decrease in water potential resulting in no significant difference in turgor potential. The other two clones had nonsignificant decreases to more negative leaf solute potentials under drought conditions resulting in significantly lowered turgor potentials. Leaf water potentials, solute potentials, and turgor potentials of the drought-treated plants returned to control values within two hours after rewatering. The growth inhibitions observed could not have been the consequence of loss of turgor. These results demonstrate genetic differences among aspen clones in water relations responses to drought.     

Diurnal and seasonal changes in stem increment and water use by yellow poplar trees in response to environmental stress

To evaluate indicators of whole-tree physiological responses to climate stress, we determined seasonal, daily and diurnal patterns of growth and water use in 10 yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera L.) trees in a stand recently released from competition. Precise measurements of stem increment and sap flow made with automated electronic dendrometers and thermal dissipation probes, respectively, indicated close temporal linkages between water use and patterns of stem shrinkage and swelling during daily cycles of water depletion and recharge of extensible outer-stem tissues. These cycles also determined net daily basal area increment. Multivariate regression models based on a 123-day data series showed that daily diameter increments were related negatively to vapor pressure deficit (VPD), but positively to precipitation and temperature. The same model form with slight changes in coefficients yielded coefficients of determination of about 0.62 (0.57-0.66) across data subsets that included widely variable growth rates and VPDs. Model R2 was improved to 0.75 by using 3-day running mean daily growth data. Rapid recovery of stem diameter growth following short-term, diurnal reductions in VPD indicated that water stored in extensible stem tissues was part of a fast recharge system that limited hydration changes in the cambial zone during periods of water stress. There were substantial differences in the seasonal dynamics of growth among individual trees, and analyses indicated that faster-growing trees were more positively affected by precipitation, solar irradiance and temperature and more negatively affected by high VPD than slower-growing trees. There were no negative effects of ozone on daily growth rates in a year of low ozone concentrations.     

Evaluation of sap flow and trunk diameter sensors for irrigation scheduling in early maturing peach trees

Five-year-old early maturing peach trees (Prunus persica (L.) Batsch cv. Flordastar grafted on GF-677 peach rootstock) were subjected to three irrigation treatments from March 18 to November 10, 2006. Control plants (T0 treatment) which received irrigation in excess of their crop water requirements (1089.7 mm) were compared with plants watered according to sap flow (SF; T1 treatment) or maximum daily trunk shrinkage (MDS; T2 treatment) measurements, so as to maintain SF and MDS signal intensities (control SF/SF in T1 and MDS in T2/control MDS, respectively) close to unity. When SF or MDS signal intensity on at least two of three consecutive days was at or below unity, irrigation was reduced by 10%. When the MDS signal intensity on at least two of three consecutive days exceeded unity, irrigation was increased by 10%. During the experiment, estimated crop evapotranspiration was 704.9 mm, and the cumulative amounts of applied water in the T1 and T2 treatments were 463.2 and 654.5 mm, respectively. The MDS-signal-intensity-driven irrigation schedule was more suitable than the SF-signal-intensity-driven irrigation schedule because it was more sensitive and reliable in detecting changes in plant water status, preventing the development of detectable plant water stress. Moreover, it had no effect on fruit size. We conclude that peach tree irrigation scheduling can be based on MDS measurements alone. Changes in the irrigation protocol assayed were proposed to reduce MDS signal intensity deviations above unity, for example, by increasing the irrigation scheduling frequency or the amount of water applied, or both. Irrigation schedules based on maintaining MDS signal intensities close to unity could be applied when local crop factor values are unavailable.