Effect of photoperiod on flower bud initiation and development in myoga (Zingiber mioga Roscoe)

Selection of suitable production locations in Australia and New Zealand for production of myoga (Zingiber mioga Roscoe) has been limited by lack of information on climatic influences on flowering. This study focused on photoperiod as potential production sites within Australia differ considerably in daylength due to the geographical range. The two cultivars available in Australia (Inferior and Superior) were examined in this trial due to previously observed differences in vegetative and reproductive development.Plants grown under long-day conditions (16 h) and short-day conditions (8 h) with a night break produced flower buds, while those under short-day conditions (8 h) did not. The failure of plants under short-day conditions to produce flower buds was due to abortion of developing floral primordia rather than a failure to initiate inflorescences. It was concluded that for flower development in myoga a qualitative long-day requirement must be satisfied, but that flower initiation was day-neutral.Short-day conditions resulted in abortion of flower primordia, premature senescence of foliage and reduced foliage dry weight in both cultivars. Early senescence and low flower bud yield of the Inferior cultivar, but not the Superior cultivar have been observed in crop evaluation trials in Southern Australia and New Zealand. Differences in critical photoperiod between the two cultivars may explain this observation and therefore photoperiodic requirements may be an important consideration in site and planting date selection for different cultivars.     

Flower initiation and development in the glasshouse rose

The initiation and development of a rose flower has been divided into a sequence of ten developmental stages. These numbered stages were used as a standard scale to follow flower development in various treatments for a number of cultivars. Flower initiation took place soon after stem extension occurred in a previously inactive bud, usually about two weeks after removal of the marketable flowering shoot above the bud. All actively growing buds appeared to initiate flowers, indicating that the abnormality known as ‘blind-wood’ is caused by the subsequent abortion of developing flower buds. There were seasonal differences in the rates of development which varied considerably between cultivars. The scale of development outlined here may provide a useful criterion for the selection of cultivars for year-round production programmes.The importance of light level as a factor determining development and productivity is discussed and some comparisons are made between rates of development with continuous production and with a period of inactivity. It is concluded that the latter technique does not enhance development and if growth is resumed too slowly, development may be delayed by the lower temperatures and abnormalities may occur.A correlation between apical development and apical size is demonstrated.     

不同栽培方式下‘巧玲’芍药花蕾败育研究

 芍药生长发育的各个时期都存在花蕾败育现象,降低了成花率。以芍药品种‘巧玲’为材料,研究温室促成盆栽、室外盆栽和大田地栽方式下的花蕾败育情况,结果表明：不同栽培方式下芍药花蕾败育率明显不同,与各生长发育阶段蕾径大小相关。蕾径2 ~ 4 mm败育蕾发生率呈现温室促成栽培（67.9% ~ 86.6%）> 室外盆栽（44.9%）> 大田地栽（16.3%）的规律,此类败育蕾是由萌芽初期芽分化速度晚于同期正常芽的芽体发育而引起,蕾径达2 mm的败育蕾的雄蕊、雌蕊原基分化已完成;蕾径4 ~ 8 mm的败育蕾发生率呈现室外盆栽（29.6%）> 温室促成栽培（9.2% ~ 25.6%）> 大田地栽（11.8%）的规律,蕾径达5 mm的败育蕾处于胚珠原基分化阶段;蕾径8 ~ 17 mm的败育蕾在温室促成栽培条件下发生率为0 ~ 4.8%,但在室外盆栽及大田地栽环境中均没有发生,蕾径达10 mm的败育蕾其胚珠的珠心和珠柄已形成;蕾径17 ~ 27 mm的败育蕾在室外盆栽环境中发生率最高,为19.9%,其次为大田地栽,为9.2%,温室促成栽培最低,为0 ~ 1.4%,蕾径达18 mm的败育蕾可见胚珠的珠心、珠被、珠孔。3种栽培方式下败蕾率最高均出现在茎伸长期,即主要发生在2 ~ 4 mm大的花蕾,温室促成栽培中控制该阶段花蕾败育是降低败蕾率的关键,可以通过肥水管理,适当延长低温处理时间及保持后期栽培温度稳定来减少其发生,提高成花率。     

Effect of photoperiod and light integral on flowering and growth of Eustoma grandiflorum (Raf.) Shinn.

The aim of the study was to examine the effects of different photoperiod and light integral on floral initiation, development and subsequent growth of Eustoma grandiflorum (Raf.) Shinn. Six-weeks-old seedlings of ‘Echo Blue’ and ‘Fuji Deep Blue’ were placed under short day (SD, 10 h) and were transferred to long days (LD, 20 h) at 2-week intervals from 6 to 14 weeks after seeding. Plants initiated flower buds regardless of light regimes. Flower bud initiation was delayed by SD compared to LD; plants transferred after 6 weeks from seeding initiated flower buds at least 21 and 10 days earlier at LD at high (HL) and low (LL) daily light integral, respectively, compared to those at SD. Light regimes had little or no effect on time to flower bud development after initiation. Thus, it seems likely that LD and HL affected the initiation rather than development. Both the photoperiod and light integral strongly influenced the subsequent growth after initiation. SD delayed the time to visible bud (VB), increased the number of nodes to first open flower, number of branches, stem diameter and shoot dry weight compared to LD. HL promoted flowering and increased several shoot characteristics and flowering compared to LL.The results indicate that Eustoma is a quantitative long-day plant. LD, and more specifically HL, enhanced flower bud initiation, development and subsequent growth. An initial SD period is preferred to increase the number of branches, number of flowering buds and flowers, stem diameter and shoot dry weight.     

The influence of fruiting on the bud sprouting and flower induction responses to chilling in Citrus

Summary

The effect of chilling temperatures on bud sprouting and flower formation was compared on fruiting and non-fruiting ‘Owari’ satsuma mandarin (Citrus unshiu Marc) trees. On non-fruiting trees, bud dormancy was weak, and a significant proportion of buds were able to sprout at high temperatures without being chilled. Separate effects of low temperatures on bud sprouting and flower induction were demonstrated. On fruiting trees these two effects of low temperatures were also demonstrated on summer-flush buds, but not on older (spring-flush) buds. The spring-flush buds from fruiting trees scarcely sprouted without being chilled. These buds required a longer chilling period for dormancy release than for flower induction, and it was not possible to separate the effect of low temperature on flower induction from the effect on dormancy release. The presence of fruit reduced flower formation by reducing bud sprouting. Furthermore, fruit had a direct inhibitive effect on vernalization which resulted in increased formation of vegetative shoots. The effect of fruit and low temperature on flowering was unrelated to carbohydrate accumulation in the leaves or the roots.     

Modification of episodic growth in Skimmia japonica ‘Rubella’ by gibberellic acid treatment

Applications of GA₃ in May/June, when the first flush of growth was maturing, induced an extra flush of vegetative growth and initiated lateral bud break. Flower initiation was delayed and flower size reduced by the GA₃. These responses were only slightly modified by additional sprays with BAP and TIBA. GA₄₊₇ was ineffective in promoting either extra extension growth or lateral bud break, but it did reduce flower size.     

Synchronization of anthesis and enhancement of vegetative growth in coffee (Coffea arabica L.) following water stress during floral initiation

SUMMARY

The possibility of using water stress during floral initiation and development, to synchronize flowering in potted coffee trees of cvs Catuai Rojo and Mundo Novo was investigated. Moderate and severe cyclic and constant water stress had little effect on vegetative growth during floral initiation. However, upon rewatering, shoot growth was significantly greater in plants where leaf water potential [¨,] had declined to -2.5 MPa compared with plants where ¨, was maintained above -0.5 MPa. The period of floral initiation was not influenced by water stress and occurred only under short days (<12 h). In contrast, a y, of -2.5 MPa significantly reduced the number of inflorescences compared with plants maintained at a ¨| of -0.5 or -1.5 MPa. This reduction was associated with leaf drop in stressed plants. Therefore, regular irrigation during the period of floral initiation is recommended. Water stress (¨, of -1.5 or -2.5 MPa compared with -0.5 MPa) accelerated floral development with no deleterious effects on floral differentiation. Once flower buds are fully differentiated they enter dormancy and reach anthesis only if trees are stressed and rewa-tered. Flower buds remain dormant if trees are watered regularly or a constant water stress provided. A constant period of water stress in the late stages of floral development after floral initiation is complete provides a means of increasing the proportion of fully differentiated dormant flower buds (mature buds). This could represent a practical method to achieve synchronized flowering in field conditions where there is irrigation and a reliable dry season in the late stages of floral development.     

Effects of growth retardants on inflorescence development in tomato

The growth retardant (2-chloroethyl)trimethylammonium chloride (chlormequat chloride), applied as a soil drench to young tomato plants (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.), was effective in reducing the abortion of flower buds that occurred under winter conditions in the glasshouse. Application of chlormequat chloride also reduced flower abortion that occurred in response to a shading treatment or to high night temperatures. A second growth retardant, tributyl-2,4-dichlorobenzylphosphonium chloride (chlorphonium chloride), showed activity similar to that of chlormequat chloride. It is suggested that abortion of the flower buds occurred when vegetative parts of the shoot system were in competition with the inflorescence for metabolites or growth substances, and that the growth retardants acted to reduce or remove this competition.     

连翘花芽分化及发育的初步研究

 利用普通光学显微镜和扫描电镜对连翘的花芽分化及发育过程进行了观察。观察结果如下:(1) 连翘花芽分化期为5月中下旬～7月中旬, 整个过程可分为未分化期、分化初期、花萼原基分化期、花冠和雄蕊原基分化期、雌蕊原基分化期。(2) 雌雄蕊的发育紧随着花芽分化的完成而进行。9月上旬花药中分化出花粉母细胞和完整的花粉囊壁; 10月下旬胚珠的发育进入大孢子母细胞阶段。     

Temperature effects on flower formation in saffron (Crocus sativus L.)

The temperature conditions for shoot growth and flower formation were characterised for saffron (Crocus sativus L.). Leaf withering occurred during late winter or spring depending on location, and coincided with a rise in temperature. No growth was detectable in the buds during the first 30 days after leaf withering, neither in underground corms nor in lifted corms incubated in the laboratory under controlled conditions. Flower initiation occurred during the first growth stages of the buds. The optimal temperature for flower formation was in the range from 23 to 27 °C, 23 °C temperature being marginally better. To ensure the formation of a maximum number of flowers, the incubation at these temperatures should exceed 50 days, although incubation longer than 150 days resulted in flower abortion. Flower emergence required the transfer of the corms from the conditions of flower formation to a markedly lower temperature (17 °C). Incubation of the corms after lifting at a higher temperature (30 °C), reduced flower initiation and caused the abortion of some of the initiated flowers. No flowers formed in corms incubated at 9 °C. A variable proportion (20–100%) of the corms forced directly at 17 °C without a previous incubation at 23–27 °C formed a single flower. The wide differences in the timing of the phenological stages in different locations we found in this study seemed related to the ambient temperature. Leaf withering was followed shortly by flower initiation, which occurred during late spring or early summer as the rising temperature reached 20 °C. A long hot summer delayed flower emergence which occurred in late autumn as the temperature fell to the range of 15–17 °C.     

Flower initiation and node development of axillary buds,growth partitioning,and bleeding sap production of young apple trees as affected by fertigation

SUMMARY

Node and flower development in axillary buds of one year old 'Elshof trees, growth and dry-matter partitioning, and bleeding sap production were examined in unfertigated field-grown trees as well as in fertigated field- and pot-grown trees. Flower initiation in axillary buds was delayed by approximately 40 d as compared with spur buds, and the critical node number within the bud was only 14 or 15 against 19 nodes in spur buds. Fertigated trees exhibited increased node development, axillary flower-bud densities, extension shoot growth and trunk increments, and decreased root/top ratios. The seasonal shoot development was markedly hastened in fertigated trees, and the amount of bleeding sap was increased. Especially, trees fertigated in pots, using a nitrogen application range of 14 to 420 ppm N, had high bleeding sap concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus and calcium. Flower-bud initiation of apple is discussed in terms of bud development, shoot growth and root activity.     

Apical Dominance and Flower Initiation in the Rose

The initiation of leaves and flowers by selected axillary buds of the glasshouse rose cultivar Sonia (syn. Sweet Promise) has been studied both while their extension growth was inhibited by apical dominance and after the inhibition had been removed at one of two times (“early” or “late”). Leaf initiation occurred during growth inhibition so that leaf primordia accumulated in the axillary buds. Flower initiation began, with both treatment times, only after removing apical dominance. Although the total number of leaf primordia formed before the flower was greater in plants of the “late” treatment, the axillary shoots produced in both treatments had similar numbers of leaves with expanded leaflets. Thus many leaf primordia of the “late” treatment plants became scales. The evidence suggests that flower initiation cannot begin while an axillary bud is subject to apical dominance, and that after its removal another factor results in the production of shoots with a relatively constant number of leaves with expanded leaflets.     

Anatomy of flower differentiation and abortion,in relation to the growth and development of hybrid tea-rose seedlings

From germination until anthesis or flower bud abortion, seedlings from ‘Sonia’ × ‘Hadley’ were grown in both a greenhouse (full daylight, 20° C) and a growth room (8 Wm^?2, 8 h, 20°C) of the IVT-phytotron. Plastochron was an external indication of the stage of flower differentiation. Flower differentiation in flowering and aborting seedlings ran parallel up to petal-segregation. Flower differentiation in aborting seedlings did not proceed beyond stamen formation. Early abortion, which also caused absence of the upper leaf, occurred without, later abortion with, an abscission zone in the flowerstalk.     

Simultaneous down-regulation of DORMANCY-ASSOCIATED MADS-box6 and SOC1 during dormancy release in Japanese apricot (Prunus mume) flower buds

In temperate deciduous fruit crops such as Prunus spp., bud endodormancy is an important physiological phase affecting the timing of blooming and subsequent fruit development. Japanese apricot (Prunus mume) bears unmixed flower buds, separate from vegetative buds, that bloom slightly more than a month before vegetative bud burst. Seasonal expression of Prunus mume DORMANCY ASSOCIATED MADS-box genes (PmDAMs) has previously been analyzed only in vegetative buds, with an association between these genes and flower bud endodormancy release not yet confirmed. In this study, we performed a seasonal expression analysis of PmDAM1–6 genes in flower buds of two Japanese apricot genotypes – namely, high-chill and low-chill cultivars. The analysis revealed that PmDAM3, PmDAM5, and PmDAM6 expressions are closely associated with dormancy release in both flower and vegetative buds. In addition, a yeast two-hybrid screening demonstrated that PmDAM6 can interact in yeast with the homolog of Arabidopsis SOC1 (PmSOC1). Synchronized expression patterns were detected in PmDAM6 and PmSOC1 during dormancy release in flower buds of the two genotypes. Taken together, these results suggest that the dimer of PmDAM6 and PmSOC1 may play a role in the regulation of dormancy transition and blooming time in Japanese apricot flower buds.     

Early flower initiation allows ample manipulation of flowering time in cherimoya (Annona cherimola Mill.)

Flower initiation date and readiness to flowering in buds of different age were studied in ‘Fino de Jete’ cherimoya (Annona cherimola) cultivar in order to establish the limits for the manipulation of its flowering date. Flower initiation was analyzed by light and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) collecting axillary buds from May to the following February, whereas the bud readiness to produce perfect flowers was determined by forcing buds of different age to sprout by means of leaf removal and tipping the new growth. SEM images confirm that cherimoya buds are differentiated into flowers almost a year before blooming. In this regard, axillary buds have already formed the sepals when the subtending leaf has just begun unfolding (week 0), while the petals are clearly visible in 1-week-old buds. Sectioning of paraffin-embedded buds illustrate that cherimoya buds are in fact a bud complex that 1 week after its inception comprises 4–5 buds of different size of which the two largest ones are reproductive, while the 2–3 smallest buds often remain undifferentiated at that time. The high capacity of flowering expressed by young buds that have been forced to grow proves that cherimoya meristems are early competent for flowering. No differences in fertility or in the time needed to reach anthesis after leaf removal were found among buds of different ages. Node position had no effect on bud break and flowering potential. The early flower initiation in cherimoya deduced from this work opens a wide temporal window for the experimental manipulation of flowering and harvest dates in this crop.     

早美丽李雌雄蕊败育过程的解剖学观察

为探明近年来早美丽李芽萌发阶段发生的花芽严重败育脱落的原因,采用石蜡切片方法,以皇家宝石为对照,观察花器后继发育过程中雌雄蕊的败育情况。结果表明,早美丽李的雌雄蕊结构分化前期能够正常完成。但在进一步的性细胞生长和分化过程中,早美丽李雌雄蕊的继续发育受阻,并在开花前24d雄蕊的花药囊壁外层细胞先发生异常,最终出现多方面的畸形——成为整个花芽退化的形式。对照皇家宝石李在花前20d,雄蕊进入小孢子母细胞主要时期,雌蕊进入胚珠突起主要时期;花前10d进入幼嫩花粉粒出现主要时期,花前7d分化出完整的胚珠。根据其雌雄蕊败育发生时期和败育特征情况,结合2005—2006年和2006-2007年2个冬季较其他年份出现的明显的暖冬天气情况,作者认为导致早美丽李花器严重败育与这2a冬季低温量不足有关。     

纬度和海拔对主要苹果品种花芽分化期的影响

花芽分化调控是苹果优质高产高效栽培的关键环节之一,准确把握花芽分化时期是精准调控的前提和基础,为探究纬度和海拔对苹果花芽分化期的影响,在陕西省杨凌示范区、甘肃省静宁县和四川省茂县3个苹果产区,用摘叶和摘果的方法研究了茂县(海拔1 425、1 680和2 050 m)、静宁(海拔1 601 m)‘长富2号’苹果,杨凌地区(海拔525 m)‘长富2号’、‘烟富6号’、‘嘎拉’和‘秦冠’苹果的花芽分化差异。结果表明:在杨凌地区花芽生理分化的时间为‘长富2号’56 d,‘烟富6号’49 d,‘嘎拉’56 d,‘秦冠’42 d。在茂县不同海拔试验点,‘长富2号’花芽生理分化期持续的时间长短为低海拔高海拔(海拔1 425 m试验点为75 d,1 680 m为70 d,2 050 m为65 d)。‘长富2号’在不同地区,花芽分化持续时间的长短为低纬度高纬度[茂县(31o33′N)为70 d,杨凌(34o18′N)为56 d,静宁(35o41′N)为49 d]。枝条停长时间与花芽分化密切相关,枝条停长越晚越不易形成花芽。在高纬度和高海拔地区枝条停长晚,但是花芽分化持续时间相对短。‘嘎拉’和‘长富2号’花芽分化从6月初开始至10月底分为6个时期,每个时期有明显的特征,各个时期相互交叉重叠;‘长富2号’各分化时期比‘嘎拉’开始的早,结束的晚,并且持续时间长,相对分散,认为这可能与富士苹果成花难有关。     

Factors affecting the growth of in vitro cultured lateral buds from Phalaenopsis flower stalks

Phalaenopsis flower-stalk buds cultured in vitro show 3 modes of growth: dormant, vegetative and reproductive. The effects of bud position on the stalk, temperature, and benzyladenine (BA) on the mode of bud growth were examined.Flower stalks were cut into 1-node sections, each with 1 bud, and inserted into solid culture medium, top side up. Buds on the upper sections had a tendency to remain dormant regardless of temperature. Sprouting buds placed at 20°C or 25°C showed reproductive growth except for some on the basal sections which grew vegetatively. At 28°C, all buds developed vegetatively independent of their original position on the stalk. The buds on the sections taken from both stalks which had elongated at min 18°C and min 28°C were subcultured; the mode of growth of the cultured buds was not affected by the temperature during flower-stalk elongation but was affected by the subsequent culture temperature.Cultured buds which had remained dormant were stimulated to sprout by addition of BA to the medium. At 5 p.p.m. and above, all buds began to develop, but malformations developed on the leaves of the shoots. All factors considered, BA at 2.5 p.p.m. was found to be the optimum level. The further development of the buds released from dormancy by BA was also affected by the position on the flower stalk and by cultural temperature.     

Changes in apical morphology during floral initiation and development in pyrethrum (Tanacetum cinerariaefolium L.)

Summary

Changes in apical morphology during floral initiation and development in pyrethrum (Tanacetum cinerariaefolium L.) were investigated by scanning electron microscopy. The sequence of events may be divided into eleven stages of apical development which are distinctive in both morphology and size. The environmental stimulus promoting rapid flower initiation was demonstrated to be vernalization. Flower initiation occurred after four months under non-vernalizing conditions through an autonomous flower induction process. Devernalization was observed under short day (10 h daylength), low photon flux density (200 µmol m² s^?1) conditions. Apices were never observed to revert to vegetative growth after the initiation of the first involucral bract and therefore this was considered to be the developmental stage at which the apex was committed to generative development.