Methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus in dogs and cats: an emerging problem?

There is concern over transmission of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) between animals and humans. The spread of hospital-acquired and community-acquired MRSA is a major challenge in human medicine. MRSA is rarely isolated from animals but methicillin resistance occurs in staphylococci that are more prevalent in animals. MRSA infections in animals are uncommon and most are associated with exposure to medical hospitals, extensive wounds, prolonged hospitalisation and immunosuppression. The risk to human health appears to be small but a survey of methicillin-resistant staphylococci in animals is required. Thorough investigation of possible zoonotic infections to establish linkage is encouraged. Medical and veterinary staff should appreciate that animals can carry MRSA, cooperate in eliminating infections and monitor animals in medical environments. Veterinary clinics should implement guidelines for dealing with MRSA. Responsible antibiotic use should minimise the spread of antibiotic resistance but a UK monitoring scheme is desirable.     

Barrier precautions, isolation protocols, and personal hygiene in veterinary hospitals.

Because nosocomial and zoonotic diseases are inherent and ever-present risks in veterinary hospitals, proactive policies should be in place to reduce the risk of sporadic cases and outbreaks. Policies should ideally be put in place before disease issues arise, and policies should be effectively conveyed to all relevant personnel. Written policies are required for practical and liability reasons and should be reviewed regularly. Although no infection control program can eliminate disease concerns, proper implementation of barrier precautions and isolation can reduce the exposure of hospitalized animals and hospital personnel to infectious agents. Appropriate personal hygiene, particularly hand hygiene, can assist in the prevention of disease transmission when pathogens bypass barriers and are able to contact personnel. Veterinary hospitals have moral, professional, and legal requirements to provide a safe workplace and to reduce the risks to hospitalized patients. Based on experience in the human medical field and on the continual emergence of new infectious diseases, infection control challenges can only be expected to increase in the future. Regular reassessment of protocols based on ongoing research and clinical experiences is required.     

Nosocomial infections and antimicrobial resistance in critical care medicine

Objective: To review the human and companion animal veterinary literature on nosocomial infections and antimicrobial drug resistance as they pertain to the critically ill patient. Data sources: Data from human and veterinary sources were reviewed using PubMed and CAB. Human data synthesis: There is a large amount of published data on nosocomially‐acquired bloodstream infections, pneumonia, urinary tract infections and surgical site infections, and strategies to minimize the frequency of these infections, in human medicine. Nosocomial infections caused by multi‐drug‐resistant (MDR) pathogens are a leading cause of increased patient morbidity and mortality, medical treatment costs, and prolonged hospital stay. Epidemiology and risk factor analyses have shown that the major risk factor for the development of antimicrobial resistance in critically ill human patients is heavy antibiotic usage. Veterinary data synthesis: There is a paucity of information on the development of antimicrobial drug resistance and nosocomially‐acquired infections in critically ill small animal veterinary patients. Mechanisms of antimicrobial drug resistance are universal, although the selection effects created by antibiotic usage may be less significant in veterinary patients. Future studies on the development of antimicrobial drug resistance in critically ill animals may benefit from research that has been conducted in humans. Conclusions: Antimicrobial use in critically ill patients selects for antimicrobial drug resistance and MDR nosocomial pathogens. The choice of antimicrobials should be prudent and based on regular surveillance studies and accurate microbiological diagnostics. Antimicrobial drug resistance is becoming an increasing problem in veterinary medicine, particularly in the critical care setting, and institution‐specific strategies should be developed to prevent the emergence of MDR infections. The collation of data from tertiary‐care veterinary hospitals may identify trends in antimicrobial drug resistance patterns in nosocomial pathogens and aid in formulating guidelines for antimicrobial use.     

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus pseudintermedius in veterinary medicine

Staphylococci are important opportunistic pathogens in most animal species. Among the most relevant species are the coagulase positive species Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus pseudintermedius. Methicillin resistance has emerged as an important problem in both of these organisms, with significant concerns about animal and public health. The relative importance of these staphylococci on different animal species varies, as do the concerns about zoonotic transmission, yet it is clear that both present a challenge to veterinary medicine.     

Household Animal and Human Medicine Use and Animal Husbandry Practices in Rural Bangladesh: Risk Factors for Emerging Zoonotic Disease and Antibiotic Resistance

Animal antimicrobial use and husbandry practices increase risk of emerging zoonotic disease and antibiotic resistance. We surveyed 700 households to elicit information on human and animal medicine use and husbandry practices. Households that owned livestock (n = 265/459, 57.7%) reported using animal treatments 630 times during the previous 6 months; 57.6% obtained medicines, including antibiotics, from drug sellers. Government animal healthcare providers were rarely visited (9.7%), and respondents more often sought animal health care from pharmacies and village doctors (70.6% and 11.9%, respectively), citing the latter two as less costly and more successful based on past performance. Animal husbandry practices that could promote the transmission of microbes from animals to humans included the following: the proximity of chickens to humans (50.1% of households reported that the chickens slept in the bedroom); the shared use of natural bodies of water for human and animal bathing (78.3%); the use of livestock waste as fertilizer (60.9%); and gender roles that dictate that females are the primary caretakers of poultry and children (62.8%). In the absence of an effective animal healthcare system, villagers must depend on informal healthcare providers for treatment of their animals. Suboptimal use of antimicrobials coupled with unhygienic animal husbandry practices is an important risk factor for emerging zoonotic disease and resistant pathogens.     

The influence of veterinary epidemiology on public health: past, present and future

This paper summarizes a presentation given at the Association for Veterinary Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine sponsored Calvin W. Schwabe symposium honouring the lifetime achievements of Dr. S. Wayne Martin. While the concepts were amalgamated from many sources, the examples were primarily selected to represent areas where Wayne Martin has been an active researcher and educator. The purpose was to describe the impact of veterinary epidemiology on public health in the past and present and to consider the future of veterinary epidemiology in public health. Veterinary medicine contributes to public health not only in the area of zoonotic disease prevention and control, but also through contributions to animal health, comparative and basic medical research, and population and environmental health. Veterinary epidemiologists contribute to both research in public health and the practice of public health through a wide range of methodological approaches and via the networks of trained epidemiologists working in the area. The contributions of veterinary epidemiologists have resulted in significant improvements in human health. There are considerable challenges and opportunities facing veterinary epidemiologists working in the public health area in the future. Meeting these needs will require continued integration between veterinary and human public health research and practice, and enhanced communication of both content and context expertise.     

Methicillin‐Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Colonization in Personnel Attending a Veterinary Surgery Conference

Objective— To evaluate the prevalence of, and risk factors for, methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) colonization in veterinary personnel. Study Design— Cross‐sectional study. Sample Population— Conference attendees (n=341) at the 2008 American College of Veterinary Surgeons Symposium in San Diego California. Methods— Nasal swabs were collected and tested using selective culture for MRSA. Isolates were typed and risk factors were evaluated using questionnaire data. Results— 17.3% of subjects (17% veterinarians and 18% technicians) were MRSA positive. Colonized individuals originated from 5 different countries, predominantly the United States and Canada. Contact with small ruminants in the preceding 30 days (odds ratio [OR] 2.2), living with a person diagnosed with MRSA in the preceding year (OR 19.8) and working in a clinic where there is a specific person in charge of the infection control program (OR 2.2) were associated with colonization using multivariable analysis. Conclusion— The high rate of colonization identified here provides more evidence that MRSA exposure is likely an occupational risk for veterinary personnel. The equal rates in small animal and large animal personnel were surprising and contradict earlier studies indicating greater rates among equine personnel. The association of MRSA and small ruminant contact has not been reported previously. Clinical Relevance— MRSA is an important emerging pathogen in veterinary medicine and is a concern for both patients and veterinary personnel. The high colonization rate indicates the need to understand and control the spread of MRSA in veterinary clinics.     

Bartonellosis: an emerging infectious disease of zoonotic importance to animals and human beings

Objective – To provide a review of clinically relevant observations related to Bartonella species as emerging pathogens in veterinary and human medicine.
Data Sources – Literature as cited in PubMed and as generated by each of the authors who have contributed to various aspects of the clinical understanding of bartonellosis.
Human Data Synthesis – Important historical and recent publications illustrating the evolving role of animal reservoirs as a source of human infection.
Veterinary Data Synthesis – Comprehensive review of the veterinary literature.
Conclusions – In addition to inducing life-threatening illnesses, such as endocarditis, myocarditis, and meningoencephalitis and contributing to chronic debilitating disease, such as arthritis, osteomyelitis, and granulomatous inflammation in cats, dogs, and potentially other animal species; pets and wildlife species can serve as persistently infected reservoir hosts for the transmission of Bartonella spp. infection to veterinary professionals and others with direct animal contact.     

A survey of zoonotic diseases contracted by South African veterinarians

A survey of 88 veterinarians employed at the Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, South Africa, was carried out to investigate the occurrence of zoonotic diseases among South African veterinarians. The survey found that 63.6% of veterinarians interviewed had suffered from a zoonotic disease. Veterinarians predominantly involved in farm animal practice were 3 times more likely to have contracted a zoonotic disease than those working in other veterinary fields. Fifty-six percent of disease incidents were initially diagnosed by the veterinarians themselves. Fifty-three percent of incidents required treatment by a medical practitioner, but the majority (61%) of incidents did not require absence from work. The incidence density rate for contracting a zoonotic disease was 0.06 per person year of exposure. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis estimated that the probability of having contracted a zoonotic disease was 50% after 11 years in practice. The risk of contracting a zoonotic disease appeared to be higher early in practice. The most common mode of transmission was by direct contact. Approximately 46% of South Africans still live in rural areas and regularly come into close contact with farm animals. The implications of this in the light of this survey's results are discussed.     

Dogs on livestock farms: A cross‐sectional study investigating potential roles in zoonotic pathogen transmission

Dogs are often present on livestock farms, where they serve important management and companion roles, yet may be involved in zoonotic pathogen transmission. Numerous factors can potentially alter the risk of exposure to zoonotic pathogens, such as the dog's access to livestock, close dog–human contact and an increasing immunocompromised human population. The objective of this study was to quantify and qualify dog ownership among livestock owners, their dog husbandry and biosecurity practices, the dogs’ access to livestock and potential risks for zoonotic pathogen transmission. A questionnaire was developed and mailed to 2,000 presumed Ohio livestock owners. Data were collected on demographics, dog husbandry practices, attitudes surrounding zoonotic diseases and attachment to and preventive veterinary care for the dogs. There were 446 responders who met the study inclusion criteria as an Ohio livestock farm owner, with 297 (67%) also owning dogs. Approximately 52% of dog‐owning households included at least one individual at higher disease risk (i.e., <5 years, ≥65 years, diagnosed with an immunocompromising condition). Most respondents had little/no concern for disease transmission from livestock to dogs (90%), from dogs to livestock (87%) and from dogs to people (94%). Dogs were allowed access to livestock by 70% of respondents and nearly all (96%; 198) indicated at least one higher risk dog–livestock management practice. In addition, many reported never leashing or fencing their dog (61%) and rarely to never picking up dog faeces (76%). Households with higher risk members reported similar husbandry, biosecurity and concern levels as households without those members (all p > .05). Numerous opportunities for zoonotic pathogen transmission and low level of zoonotic disease concern suggest a need for improved education and outreach for the livestock dog‐owning community, particularly for higher risk households.     

Nosocomial infections.

Nosocomial infections and antimicrobial resistance are topics that have been intensely studied in human medicine because of their significant impact on human health. In recent years, concerns have been raised that the use of antibiotics in veterinary medicine, animal husbandry, and agriculture may be contributing to the development of resistance in common bacterial species affecting human beings. Although there is inadequate proof at this time that the resistance is transmitted from animals to people, if antibiotics continue to be used indiscriminately in veterinary medicine, veterinarians may find themselves facing regulations restricting the use of some antibiotics. Nosocomial infections have been reported in veterinary medicine and are likely to increase in prevalence with the increase in intensive care practices in many hospitals. Prolonged hospitalization and the use of invasive devices and procedures increase the risk of nosocomial disease. As in human medicine, organisms isolated in the nosocomial infections reported in veterinary patients have an increasingly broad spectrum of antimicrobial resistance. Despite these findings, the use of empiric and prophylactic antibiotic therapy is still widespread in veterinary medicine. Nosocomial infections and antimicrobial resistance may have a serious impact on the future of [table: see text] veterinary medicine, because the cost and ability to treat our patients may be affected by the loss of access to or effectiveness of antimicrobial drugs. Despite the millions of dollars spent on research to reduce the incidence of nosocomial infections in human patients, the strategies that have consistently proven successful are simple and inexpensive to implement. The most important factor in preventing nosocomial infections is improving the hygiene practices of health care providers. Hand-washing or the use of disposable gloves can dramatically reduce the transmission of bacteria between patients. Aseptic technique should be used in the placement and management of all invasive devices. All staff members should be educated on the risks and symptoms associated with nosocomial infections so that cases can be detected early and treated appropriately. We in the veterinary profession have the opportunity to learn from the experiences of the human medical profession and can take steps to prevent the escalation of nosocomial infections and their impact on our profession.     

Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases-producing gram-negative bacteria in companion animals: action is clearly warranted!

Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL)-producing Gram-negative bacteria pose a serious threat to Public Health in human medicine as well as increasingly in the veterinary context worldwide. Several studies reported the transmission of zoonotic multidrug resistant bacteria between food-producing animals and humans, whilst the contribution of companion animals to this scenario is rather unknown. Within the last decades a change in the social role of companion animals has taken place, resulting in a very close contact between owners and their pets. As a consequence, humans may obtain antimicrobial resistant bacteria or the corresponding resistance genes not only from food-producing animals but also via close contact to their pets.This may give rise to bacterial infections with limited therapeutic options and an increased risk of treatment failure. As beta-lactams constitute one of the most important groups of antimicrobial agents in veterinary medicine, retaliatory actions in small animal and equine practices are urgently needed. This review addresses the increasing burden of extended-spectrum beta-lactam resistance among Enterobacteriaceae isolated from companion animals. It should emphasize the urgent need for the implementation of antibiotic stewardship as well as surveillance and monitoring programs of multi resistant bacteria in particular in view of new putative infection cycles between humans and their pets.     

动物医学专业复合应用型人才培养过程中实践教学的改革与应用

为了满足不同用人单位对动物医学专业技术人才实践能力的需求,高等农业院校应通过多种途径提高动物医学人才培养的质量,不断提高学生实践技能,为社会输送合格人才。内蒙古农业大学兽医学院在动物医学专业实践教学体系建设、实验条件建设、校内外实习基地建设,以及实践教学方法等方面进行了全面的改革与实践,建立了一套适用于动物医学专业的复合应用型专业人才培养模式,提高了学生的实践动手能力和创新能力,取得了较好的教学效果。     

An outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus skin infections resulting from horse to human transmission in a veterinary hospital

There are increasing reports of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection and colonization in horses and evidence that MRSA can be transmitted between horses and humans. The objective of this study was to investigate reports of skin infection in personnel working with a foal with community-associated MRSA colonization and subsequent infection. Clinical diagnostic specimens were collected from individuals reporting skin lesions following contact with the affected foal. Nasal and groin screening swabs were collected from other veterinary personnel that attended a voluntary screening clinic. MRSA skin infections were identified in three neonatal intensive care unit personnel. Nasal colonization was subsequently identified in 10/103 (9.7%) other veterinary hospital personnel. Isolates were indistinguishable by pulsed field gel electrophoresis, classified as Canadian epidemic MRSA-5, possessed SCCmecIV, were negative for the Panton-Valentine leukocidin and were multidrug resistant. Transmission to veterinary personnel despite short-term contact with standard protective barriers highlights the potential importance of MRSA as an emerging zoonotic pathogen, and indicates that further evaluation of interspecies transmission of MRSA and means to prevent zoonotic infection are required.     

Hyperbaric oxygen therapy. Part 2: application in disease

Objective – Review the mechanisms of action and clinical application of hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) based on human and veterinary clinical and experimental literature. Data Sources – Pubmed and Veterinary Information Network databases were searched for human and veterinary journal articles on hyperbaric therapy in clinically applicable situations. Historical reference searches on several articles in addition to basic physiologic concepts were also reviewed. Human Data Synthesis – HBOT has gained acceptance as an adjunctive treatment in clinical conditions other than diving‐related injuries, such as select problem wounds and central nervous system diseases, in human medicine. Access to hyperbaric therapy has increased and ongoing research has furthered understanding of the mechanisms and potential therapeutic uses of HBOT. Veterinary Data Synthesis – Several animal models have been utilized to examine the effects of HBOT; primarily rodents (mice, rats) and rabbits but also dogs, cats, and pigs. Data related to animal model research as it pertains to clinical application of HBOT is reviewed. Conclusions – There is a substantial body of literature that has examined the adverse and beneficial effects of HBOT in animal models. As technology becomes more readily available to clinical practice and more clinical trials are performed to define its effectiveness, HBOT may be considered as an additional therapeutic option in many conditions including select problem wounds, spinal cord injury, and cerebral ischemic injury. Understanding the mechanisms by which HBOT exerts its effects will help guide research and use of the modality in clinical patients.     

中美高校《兽医病理学》课程教学的区别

《兽医病理学》是研究动物疾病科学的一门基础兽医学课程,是基础兽医学与临床兽医学之间的＂桥梁学科＂。近年来,为了提升兽医执业专业毕业生能力,我国对《兽医病理学》课程教学进行了一系列的改革,取得了一定的进步,但实际教学效果与预期目标仍有一定的差距。以黑龙江八一农垦大学和美国康奈尔大学兽医专业《兽医病理学》教学为例,就中美兽医教育中该课程教学的区别进行阐述,旨在为我国兽医病理学教学改革提供借鉴。     

Educational preparedness of veterinarians for foreign animal diseases

Veterinary medical education in FADs has been and will continue to be critically important if veterinarians are expected to fulfill the profession's primary obligations to society--those of protecting our animals' health, conserving our animal resources, and promoting public health. It is imperative that curricula and instruction in veterinary schools and colleges provide the depth and breadth of knowledge and understanding necessary to prepare all veterinarians, including those in private practice, for their key role in defending against FADs. Development and implementation of governmental and military programs to diagnose, prevent, control, and eradicate FADs will require a dedicated cadre of public sector veterinarians who have a solid educational foundation in FADs and understand the contemporary issues and global challenges we face. Animal-related industries, associations, and organizations will increasingly rely on well-educated veterinarians to help guide them in ways that will protect animals, clientele, consumers, and trading partners from effects of FADs. Agencies and organizations concerned with conservation of animal resources will require veterinary expertise necessary to prevent FADs in a multitude of animal species, including marine animals, wildlife, endangered species, zoologic specimens, and important genetic lines as well as our domestic companion and livestock species. Species affected by FADs also include human beings for those disease agents with zoonotic potential; thus, veterinary education also plays a key role in public health.     

Escherichia coli and selected veterinary and zoonotic pathogens isolated from environmental sites in companion animal veterinary hospitals in southern Ontario

Hospital-based infection control in veterinary medicine is emerging and the role of the environment in hospital-acquired infections (HAI) in veterinary hospitals is largely unknown. This study was initiated to determine the recovery of Escherichia coli and selected veterinary and zoonotic pathogens from the environments of 101 community veterinary hospitals. The proportion of hospitals with positive environmental swabs were: E. coli--92%, Clostridium difficile--58%, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)--9%, CMY-2 producing E. coli--9%, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius--7%, and Salmonella--2%. Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus spp., canine parvovirus, and feline calicivirus were not isolated. Prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in E. coli isolates was low. Important potential veterinary and human pathogens were recovered including Canadian epidemic strains MRSA-2 and MRSA-5, and C. difficile ribotype 027. There is an environmental reservoir of pathogens in veterinary hospitals; therefore, additional studies are required to characterize risk factors associated with HAI in companion animals, including the role of the environment.     

兽医微生物学基础验证性和综合设计性实验两段式实验教学模式的构建

2014—2018年,聊城大学动物医学专业将兽医微生物学实验教学分为2个阶段,第1阶段主要开设基础验证性实验,培养学生的基本操作技能;第2阶段开设综合设计性实验,培养学生的科研意识和团队协作精神。经过几年的探索与改进,逐步构建了较为成熟的两段式实验教学模式。采用该教学模式,有利于高素质人才培养,并可为畜牧兽医行业输送高素质应用型和科研型人才。