Astaxanthin: Sources,Extraction, Stability,Biological Activities and Its Commercial Applications—A Review

There is currently much interest in biological active compounds derived from natural resources, especially compounds that can efficiently act on molecular targets, which are involved in various diseases. Astaxanthin (3,3′-dihydroxy-β, β′-carotene-4,4′-dione) is a xanthophyll carotenoid, contained in Haematococcus pluvialis, Chlorella zofingiensis, Chlorococcum, and Phaffia rhodozyma. It accumulates up to 3.8% on the dry weight basis in H. pluvialis. Our recent published data on astaxanthin extraction, analysis, stability studies, and its biological activities results were added to this review paper. Based on our results and current literature, astaxanthin showed potential biological activity in in vitro and in vivo models. These studies emphasize the influence of astaxanthin and its beneficial effects on the metabolism in animals and humans. Bioavailability of astaxanthin in animals was enhanced after feeding Haematococcus biomass as a source of astaxanthin. Astaxanthin, used as a nutritional supplement, antioxidant and anticancer agent, prevents diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative disorders, and also stimulates immunization. Astaxanthin products are used for commercial applications in the dosage forms as tablets, capsules, syrups, oils, soft gels, creams, biomass and granulated powders. Astaxanthin patent applications are available in food, feed and nutraceutical applications. The current review provides up-to-date information on astaxanthin sources, extraction, analysis, stability, biological activities, health benefits and special attention paid to its commercial applications.     

Advances in Technologies for Highly Active Omega-3 Fatty Acids from Krill Oil: Clinical Applications

Euphausia superba, commonly known as krill, is a small marine crustacean from the Antarctic Ocean that plays an important role in the marine ecosystem, serving as feed for most fish. It is a known source of highly bioavailable omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid). In preclinical studies, krill oil showed metabolic, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective and chemo preventive effects, while in clinical trials it showed significant metabolic, vascular and ergogenic actions. Solvent extraction is the most conventional method to obtain krill oil. However, different solvents must be used to extract all lipids from krill because of the diversity of the polarities of the lipid compounds in the biomass. This review aims to provide an overview of the chemical composition, bioavailability and bioaccessibility of krill oil, as well as the mechanisms of action, classic and non-conventional extraction techniques, health benefits and current applications of this marine crustacean.     

In Vitro Bioactivity of Astaxanthin and Peptides from Hydrolisates of Shrimp (Parapenaeus longirostris) By-Products: From the Extraction Process to Biological Effect Evaluation,as Pilot Actions for the Strategy “From Waste to Profit”

Non-edible parts of crustaceans could be a rich source of valuable bioactive compounds such as the carotenoid astaxanthin and peptides, which have well-recognized beneficial effects. These compounds are widely used in nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals, and their market is rapidly growing, suggesting the need to find alternative sources. The aim of this work was to set up a pilot-scale protocol for the reutilization of by-products of processed shrimp, in order to address the utilization of this valuable biomass for nutraceutical and pharmaceuticals application, through the extraction of astaxanthin-enriched oil and antioxidant-rich protein hydrolysates. Astaxanthin (AST) was obtained using “green extraction methods,” such as using fish oil and different fatty acid ethyl esters as solvents and through supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), whereas bioactive peptides were obtained by protease hydrolysis. Both astaxanthin and bioactive peptides exhibited bioactive properties in vitro in cellular model systems, such as antioxidant and angiotensin I converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activities (IA). The results show higher astaxanthin yields in ethyl esters fatty acids (TFA) extraction and significant enrichment by short-path distillation (SPD) up to 114.80 ± 1.23 µg/mL. Peptide fractions of <3 kDa and 3–5 kDa exhibited greater antioxidant activity while the fraction 5–10 kDa exhibited a better ACE-IA. Lower-molecular-weight bioactive peptides and astaxanthin extracted using supercritical fluids showed protective effects against oxidative damage in 142BR and in 3T3 cell lines. These results suggest that “green” extraction methods allow us to obtain high-quality bioactive compounds from large volumes of shrimp waste for nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications.     

Chitin Synthesis and Degradation in Crustaceans: A Genomic View and Application

Chitin is among the most important components of the crustacean cuticular exoskeleton and intestinal peritrophic matrix. With the progress of genomics and sequencing technology, a large number of gene sequences related to chitin metabolism have been deposited in the GenBank database in recent years. Here, we summarized the genes and pathways associated with the biosynthesis and degradation of chitins in crustaceans based on genomic analyses. We found that chitin biosynthesis genes typically occur in single or two copies, whereas chitin degradation genes are all multiple copies. Moreover, the chitinase genes are significantly expanded in most crustacean genomes. The gene structure and expression pattern of these genes are similar to those of insects, albeit with some specific characteristics. Additionally, the potential applications of the chitin metabolism genes in molting regulation and immune defense, as well as industrial chitin degradation and production, are also summarized in this review.     

Chlorella zofingiensis as an Alternative Microalgal Producer of Astaxanthin: Biology and Industrial Potential

Astaxanthin (3,3′-dihydroxy-β,β-carotene-4,4′-dione), a high-value ketocarotenoid with a broad range of applications in food, feed, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical industries, has been gaining great attention from science and the public in recent years. The green microalgae Haematococcus pluvialis and Chlorella zofingiensis represent the most promising producers of natural astaxanthin. Although H. pluvialis possesses the highest intracellular astaxanthin content and is now believed to be a good producer of astaxanthin, it has intrinsic shortcomings such as slow growth rate, low biomass yield, and a high light requirement. In contrast, C. zofingiensis grows fast phototrophically, heterotrophically and mixtrophically, is easy to be cultured and scaled up both indoors and outdoors, and can achieve ultrahigh cell densities. These robust biotechnological traits provide C. zofingiensis with high potential to be a better organism than H. pluvialis for mass astaxanthin production. This review aims to provide an overview of the biology and industrial potential of C. zofingiensis as an alternative astaxanthin producer. The path forward for further expansion of the astaxanthin production from C. zofingiensis with respect to both challenges and opportunities is also discussed.     

Recent Advancements and Future Perspectives of Microalgae-Derived Pharmaceuticals

Microalgal cells serve as solar-powered factories that produce pharmaceuticals, recombinant proteins (vaccines and drugs), and valuable natural byproducts that possess medicinal properties. The main advantages of microalgae as cell factories can be summarized as follows: they are fueled by photosynthesis, are carbon dioxide-neutral, have rapid growth rates, are robust, have low-cost cultivation, are easily scalable, pose no risk of human pathogenic contamination, and their valuable natural byproducts can be further processed. Despite their potential, there are many technical hurdles that need to be overcome before the commercial production of microalgal pharmaceuticals, and extensive studies regarding their impact on human health must still be conducted and the results evaluated. Clearly, much work remains to be done before microalgae can be used in the large-scale commercial production of pharmaceuticals. This review focuses on recent advancements in microalgal biotechnology and its future perspectives.     

Response Surface Methodology for Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis

Astaxanthin is a novel carotenoid nutraceutical occurring in many crustaceans and red yeasts. It has exhibited various biological activities including prevention or amelioration of cardiovascular disease, gastric ulcer, hypertension, and diabetic nephropathy. In this study, ultrasound-assisted extraction was developed for the effective extraction of astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis. Some parameters such as extraction solvent, liquid-to-solid ratio, extraction temperature, and extraction time were optimized by single-factor experiment and response surface methodology. The optimal extraction conditions were 48.0% ethanol in ethyl acetate, the liquid-to-solid ratio was 20:1 (mL/g), and extraction for 16.0 min at 41.1 °C under ultrasound irradiation of 200 W. Under optimal conditions, the yield of astaxanthin was 27.58 ± 0.40 mg/g. The results obtained are beneficial for the full utilization of Haematococcus pluvialis, which also indicated that ultrasound-assisted extraction is a very useful method for extracting astaxanthin from marine life.     

Jellyfish as an Alternative Source of Bioactive Antiproliferative Compounds

Jellyfish are commonly considered a nuisance for their negative effects on human activities (e.g., fisheries, power plants and tourism) and human health. However, jellyfish provide several benefits to humans and are commonly eaten in eastern countries. Additionally, recent studies have suggested that jellyfish may become a source of high-value molecules. In this study, we tested the effects of the methanolic extracts and enriched fractions, obtained by solid-phase extraction fractionation, from the scyphomedusae Pelagia noctiluca, Rhizostoma pulmo, Cotylorhiza tuberculata and the cubomedusa Caryddea marsupialis on different human cancer cell lines in order to evaluate a potential antiproliferative activity. Our results indicated that fraction C from Caryddea marsupialis-(CM) and C. tuberculata oral arms (CTOA) were the most active to reduce cell viability in a dose-dependent manner. LC/MS based dereplication analyses highlighted that both bioactive fractions contained mainly fatty acids and derivatives, with CM additionally containing small peptides (0.7–0.8 kDa), which might contribute to its higher biological activity. The mechanism of action behind the most active fraction was investigated using PCR arrays. Results showed that the fraction C of CM can reduce the expression of genes involved in apoptosis inhibition in melanoma-treated cells, which makes jellyfish a potential new source of antiproliferative drugs to be exploited in the future.     

Wide Range Applications of Spirulina: From Earth to Space Missions

Spirulina is the most studied cyanobacterium species for both pharmacological applications and the food industry. The aim of the present review is to summarize the potential benefits of the use of Spirulina for improving healthcare both in space and on Earth. Regarding the first field of application, Spirulina could represent a new technology for the sustainment of long-duration manned missions to planets beyond the Lower Earth Orbit (e.g., Mars); furthermore, it could help astronauts stay healthy while exposed to a variety of stress factors that can have negative consequences even after years. As far as the second field of application, Spirulina could have an active role in various aspects of medicine, such as metabolism, oncology, ophthalmology, central and peripheral nervous systems, and nephrology. The recent findings of the capacity of Spirulina to improve stem cells mobility and to increase immune response have opened new intriguing scenarios in oncological and infectious diseases, respectively.     

Astaxanthin Protects Dendritic Cells from Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Immune Dysfunction

Astaxanthin, originating from seafood, is a naturally occurring red carotenoid pigment. Previous studies have focused on its antioxidant properties; however, whether astaxanthin possesses a desired anti-inflammatory characteristic to regulate the dendritic cells (DCs) for sepsis therapy remains unknown. Here, we explored the effects of astaxanthin on the immune functions of murine DCs. Our results showed that astaxanthin reduced the expressions of LPS-induced inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-10) and phenotypic markers (MHCII, CD40, CD80, and CD86) by DCs. Moreover, astaxanthin promoted the endocytosis levels in LPS-treated DCs, and hindered the LPS-induced migration of DCs via downregulating CCR7 expression, and then abrogated allogeneic T cell proliferation. Furthermore, we found that astaxanthin inhibited the immune dysfunction of DCs induced by LPS via the activation of the HO-1/Nrf2 axis. Finally, astaxanthin with oral administration remarkably enhanced the survival rate of LPS-challenged mice. These data showed a new approach of astaxanthin for potential sepsis treatment through avoiding the immune dysfunction of DCs.     

Astaxanthin: a potential therapeutic agent in cardiovascular disease

Astaxanthin is a xanthophyll carotenoid present in microalgae, fungi, complex plants, seafood, flamingos and quail. It is an antioxidant with anti-inflammatory properties and as such has potential as a therapeutic agent in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Synthetic forms of astaxanthin have been manufactured. The safety, bioavailability and effects of astaxanthin on oxidative stress and inflammation that have relevance to the pathophysiology of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, have been assessed in a small number of clinical studies. No adverse events have been reported and there is evidence of a reduction in biomarkers of oxidative stress and inflammation with astaxanthin administration. Experimental studies in several species using an ischaemia-reperfusion myocardial model demonstrated that astaxanthin protects the myocardium when administered both orally or intravenously prior to the induction of the ischaemic event. At this stage we do not know whether astaxanthin is of benefit when administered after a cardiovascular event and no clinical cardiovascular studies in humans have been completed and/or reported. Cardiovascular clinical trials are warranted based on the physicochemical and antioxidant properties, the safety profile and preliminary experimental cardiovascular studies of astaxanthin.     

大豆油脂加工的技术创新

近年来,世界大豆油脂加工科技发展非常迅速,新的大豆预处理和制炼油技术日益受到人们重视,新技术、新装备、新产品不断涌现。本文从提高豆油(粕)质量、降低能耗和废弃物排放、提高生产效率和开发系列新产品等方面出发,阐述了大豆油脂加工技术的创新现状。     

Drugs and Cosmetics from the Sea

The marine environment is a rich source of both biological and chemical diversity. This diversity has been the source of unique chemical compounds with the potential for industrial development as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, nutritional supplements, molecular probes, fine chemicals and agrochemicals. In recent years, a significant number of novel metabolites with potent pharmacological properties has been discovered from the marine organisms. Although there are only a few marine-derived products currently on the market, several robust new compounds derived from marine natural products are now in the clinical pipeline, with more clinical development. While the marine world offers an extremely rich resource for novel compounds, it also represents a great challenge that requires inputs from various scientific areas to bring the marine chemical diversity up to its therapeutic potential.     

Astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis Prevents Oxidative Stress on Human Endothelial Cells without Toxicity

Astaxanthin, a powerful antioxidant, is a good candidate for the prevention of intracellular oxidative stress. The aim of the study was to compare the antioxidant activity of astaxanthin present in two natural extracts from Haematococcus pluvialis, a microalgae strain, with that of synthetic astaxanthin. Natural extracts were obtained either by solvent or supercritical extraction methods. UV, HPLC-DAD and (HPLC-(atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI)+)/ion trap-MS) characterizations of both natural extracts showed similar compositions of carotenoids, but different percentages in free astaxanthin and its ester derivatives. The Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) assay showed that natural extracts containing esters displayed stronger antioxidant activities than free astaxanthin. Their antioxidant capacities to inhibit intracellular oxidative stress were then evaluated on HUVEC cells. The intracellular antioxidant activity in natural extracts was approximately 90-times higher than synthetic astaxanthin (5 µM). No modification, neither in the morphology nor in the viability, of vascular human cells was observed by in vitro biocompatibility study up to 10 µM astaxanthin concentrations. Therefore, these results revealed the therapeutic potential of the natural extracts in vascular human cell protection against oxidative stress without toxicity, which could be exploited in prevention and/or treatment of cardiovascular diseases.     

The Role of Seawater and Saline Solutions in Treatment of Upper Respiratory Conditions

The history of saline nasal irrigation (SNI) is indeed a long one, beginning from the ancient Ayurvedic practices and gaining a foothold in the west at the beginning of the 20th century. Today, there is a growing number of papers covering the effects of SNI, from in vitro studies to randomized clinical trials and literature overviews. Based on the recommendations of most of the European and American professional associations, seawater, alone or in combination with other preparations, has its place in the treatment of numerous conditions of the upper respiratory tract (URT), primarily chronic (rhino)sinusitis, allergic rhinitis, acute URT infections and postoperative recovery. Additionally, taking into account its multiple mechanisms of action and mounting evidence from recent studies, locally applied seawater preparations may have an important role in the prevention of viral and bacterial infections of the URT. In this review we discuss results published in the past years focusing on seawater preparations and their use in clinical and everyday conditions, since such products provide the benefits of additional ions vs. saline, have an excellent safety profile and are recommended by most professional associations in the field of otorhinolaryngology.     

茶多糖的提取及分离纯化研究进展

茶多糖是从茶叶提取出来的植物多糖,具有多种生物活性,近些年已发展成为茶学领域的一个新的研究热点.本文主要综述了近年来茶多糖提取、分离纯化等方面的研究进展,并对未来的研究方向和发展前景进行了展望,以期为茶多糖的研究与开发提供理论依据.     

Emergent Sources of Prebiotics: Seaweeds and Microalgae

In recent years, scientists have become aware that human microbiota, in general, and gut microbiota, in particular, play a major role in human health and diseases, such as obesity and diabetes, among others. A large number of evidence has come to light regarding the beneficial effects, either for the host or the gut microbiota, of some foods and food ingredients or biochemical compounds. Among these, the most promising seem to be polysaccharides (PS) or their derivatives, and they include the dietary fibers. Some of these PS can be found in seaweeds and microalgae, some being soluble fibers, such as alginates, fucoidans, carrageenans and exopolysaccharides, that are not fermented, at least not completely, by colonic microbiota. This review gives an overview of the importance of the dietary fibers, as well as the benefits of prebiotics, to human health. The potential of the PS from marine macro- and microalgae to act as prebiotics is discussed, and the different techniques to obtain oligosaccharides from PS are presented. The mechanisms of the benefits of fiber, in general, and the types and benefits of algal fibers in human health are highlighted. The findings of some recent studies that present the potential effects of prebiotics on animal models of algal biomass and their extracts, as well as oligo- and polysaccharides, are presented. In the future, the possibility of using prebiotics to modulate the microbiome, and, consequently, prevent certain human diseases is foreseen.     

Potential uses for cuphea oil processing byproducts and processed oils

Cuphea spp. have seeds that contain high levels of medium chain fatty acids and have the potential to be commercially cultivated. In the course of processing and refining cuphea oil a number of byproducts are generated. Developing commercial uses for these byproducts would improve the economics of growing cuphea. Oil fractions and byproducts were obtained from processed seeds of cuphea germplasm line PSR 23 (Cuphea viscosissima × Cuphea lanceolata). We investigated the employment of oil byproducts as growth regulators and solid residues as organic soil amendments on Calabrese broccoli (Brassica oleracea L, family Brassicaceae) seedling growth. Seed processing solid residue fractions, included presscake, bin trash, stem trash and seed trash. These fractions were ground and mixed into soil to obtain concentrations of 0, 0.5, 1, 3, and 10% (w/w). Ground presscake and bin trash could be employed as an organic soil amendment up to 1% without detrimental effects on broccoli. Ground seed meal (seed trash) was detrimental to seedling growth at all concentrations tested. Stem trash employed at 1% caused fresh and dry weights to increase 26.8 and 29.8%, respectively, compared to untreated broccoli seedlings. Stem trash could be employed up to 10% without a detrimental effect on broccoli seedlings. Solvent extraction to remove residual oils from residue fractions was also conducted to generate improved soil amendments. Generally, solvent extraction of seed-processing residue fractions improved the broccoli seedling growth responses. Administration of processed oils and their byproduct fractions as foliar sprays on broccoli seedlings was conducted at rates of 0, 10, 30, and 50 g L⁻¹. Plants were evaluated 72 h after spraying. Refined and crude oils had no effect on broccoli seedlings; gums and soapstock sprays had no effect at 10 or 30 g L⁻¹ concentrations but at 50 g L⁻¹ it killed seedlings. Distilled fatty acid fraction sprays killed broccoli seedlings at all tested concentrations. Certain oil byproduct fractions from cuphea oil processing can be employed as “environmentally-friendly” herbicidal sprays. Calorific evaluation of cuphea ag-wastes were conducted and found to compare well to other biomass energy sources.     

Dietary carotenoids regulate astaxanthin content of copepods and modulate their susceptibility to UV light and copper toxicity

High irradiation and the presence of xenobiotics favor the formation of reactive oxygen species in marine environments. Organisms have developed antioxidant defenses, including the accumulation of carotenoids that must be obtained from the diet. Astaxanthin is the main carotenoid in marine crustaceans where, among other functions, it scavenges free radicals thus protecting cell compounds against oxidation. Four diets with different carotenoid composition were used to culture the meiobenthic copepod Amphiascoides atopus to assess how its astaxanthin content modulates the response to prooxidant stressors. A. atopus had the highest astaxanthin content when the carotenoid was supplied as astaxanthin esters (i.e., Haematococcus meal). Exposure to short wavelength UV light elicited a 77% to 92% decrease of the astaxanthin content of the copepod depending on the culture diet. The LC(50) values of A. atopus exposed to copper were directly related to the initial astaxanthin content. The accumulation of carotenoids may ascribe competitive advantages to certain species in areas subjected to pollution events by attenuating the detrimental effects of metals on survival, and possibly development and fecundity. Conversely, the loss of certain dietary items rich in carotenoids may be responsible for the amplification of the effects of metal exposure in consumers.     

Marine Origin Collagens and Its Potential Applications

Collagens are the most abundant high molecular weight proteins in both invertebrate and vertebrate organisms, including mammals, and possess mainly a structural role, existing different types according with their specific organization in distinct tissues. From this, they have been elected as one of the key biological materials in tissue regeneration approaches. Also, industry is constantly searching for new natural sources of collagen and upgraded methodologies for their production. The most common sources are from bovine and porcine origin, but other ways are making their route, such as recombinant production, but also extraction from marine organisms like fish. Different organisms have been proposed and explored for collagen extraction, allowing the sustainable production of different types of collagens, with properties depending on the kind of organism (and their natural environment) and extraction methodology. Such variety of collagen properties has been further investigated in different ways to render a wide range of applications. The present review aims to shed some light on the contribution of marine collagens for the scientific and technological development of this sector, stressing the opportunities and challenges that they are and most probably will be facing to assume a role as an alternative source for industrial exploitation.