Finding our bearings: Understanding public attitudes toward growing black bear populations in Alabama

Black bear populations in Alabama have been low since the early part of the 20th century, but an increase in sightings over the past decade has led researchers to believe that populations may be growing, spurring discussions on restoring the species throughout its native range in the state. The rise of a large carnivore population is likely to increase human–wildlife interactions and attract outspoken opinions in support of and against population recovery. We conducted a mail survey of Alabama residents to access public views and opinions toward growing bear populations. Multiple linear regression was used to examine the degree to which residents’ attitudes toward black bears could be predicted by demographic, cognitive, and experiential variables. Results demonstrate that the strongest predictors of attitudes toward bears included mutualist and hunting beliefs, trust in the state wildlife management agency, race, and exposure to bear education materials.     

Explaining Cattle Rancher Participation in Wildlife Conservation Technical Assistance Programs in the Southeastern United States

US natural resources and wildlife agencies have been increasing their efforts to involve cattle ranchers in wildlife conservation through technical assistance programs that provide for wildlife conservation activities. Understanding why ranchers choose to be involved in these programs is fundamental to increasing participation and ensuring their success. Using the theory of planned behavior as a theoretical model, we surveyed 1 093 ranchers in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and Mississippi to explain and predict intention to participate in technical assistance programs, specifically, wildlife workshops and field days. All three theory components—attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control—were important to intent to participate and explained 41% of the variance, with perceived behavioral control and subjective norm having the greatest standardized effects (β = 0.329 and β = 0.316, respectively). Investigation of the construct components yielded insight into how agencies could increase participation. Ranchers generally held positive attitudes toward wildlife workshops, perceiving them to be a good way to learn about wildlife management and perceiving that most ranches were suitable for wildlife, an instance of perceived behavioral control. However, ranchers did not perceive that workshops and field days were widely advertised or promoted, limiting the amount of perceived control they had over their participation. Additionally, ranchers identified normative groups whose opinions were important to them, namely their families, friends and neighbors, fellow ranchers, and agency staff. However, these same groups were not seen to actively encourage ranchers to participate in technical field days and workshops. Using key members of these normative groups to advertise and promote workshops and field days among their peers should increase rancher behavioral control and attitudes associated with technical workshops and field days. Employing strategies from this research to increase attendance at technical workshops and field days should improve wildlife conservation technical assistance program effects.     

A State and Provincial Survey of Harvest Reporting and Data Collection Methods

This article explored state and provincial wildlife agency deer (Odocoileus sp.) harvest data collection methods (in-person check stations [IPC], postal mail, telephone, and Internet harvest reporting [IHR]), and agency opinions about using hunter-provided data in making sound management decisions. We conducted an Internet survey of all U.S. and Canadian wildlife agencies’ deer program coordinators to determine current methods used for harvest reporting. Among agencies, IHR was the most commonly used method (64%), followed by IPC (46%), telephone (41%), and mail-in kill cards (25%). An additional 13 states were in the process of providing telephone and IHR. Most agencies expressed confidence in data hunters provided and felt these data were important in helping make management decisions. Automated systems (e.g., telephone and IHR) may provide opportunities for hunters to easily report their harvest, thereby potentially increasing harvest reporting rates, eliminating manual data entry by staff, and allowing for immediate access to data.     

What Are They Thinking? Exploring Layperson Conceptualizations of Wildlife Health and Disease

Communication is an important part of wildlife management. Communication strategies based in knowledge of stakeholder understandings of key issues tend to be particularly effective. We conducted focus groups in five states across the United States to evaluate how laypersons conceptualize wildlife health and wildlife disease management. Based on insights from the focus groups, we identified building blocks of layperson mental models for wildlife health. From the layperson perspective, wildlife health was associated with absence of disease; balanced, sustainable populations; healthy animals; habitat quality; and ecosystem health. Wildlife disease was commonly viewed as a natural phenomenon. Factors influencing support for wildlife disease management included the specific methods used, cost, predicted consequences of management, level of uncertainty, and severity of the disease threat. Knowledge attained from these focus groups provides empirical evidence of beliefs and perceptions that influence public understanding and agreement with wildlife disease management.     

Land Use Diversification and Intensification on Elk Winter Range in Greater Yellowstone: Framework and Agenda for Social-Ecological Research

Amenity migration describes the movement of peoples to rural landscapes and the transition toward tourism and recreation and away from production-oriented land uses (ranching, timber harvesting). The resulting mosaic of land uses and community structures has important consequences for wildlife and their management. This research note examines amenity-driven changes to social-ecological systems in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, specifically in lower elevations that serve as winter habitat for elk. We present a research agenda informed by a preliminary and exploratory mixed-methods investigation: the creation of a “social-impact” index of land use change on elk winter range and a focus group with wildlife management experts. Our findings suggest that elk are encountering an increasingly diverse landscape with respect to land use, while new ownership patterns increase the complexity of social and community dynamics. These factors, in turn, contribute to increasing difficulty meeting wildlife management objectives. To deal with rising complexity across social and ecological landscapes of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, future research will focus on property life cycle dynamics, as well as systems approaches.     

The Essential Role of Human Dimensions and Stakeholder Participation in States’ Fulfillment of Public Trust Responsibilities

The Public Trust Doctrine (PTD) vests states with a fiduciary responsibility to manage wildlife for the benefit of current and future generations. States have varied approaches to applying the PTD for wildlife management ranging from a traditional focus on hunters, anglers, and trappers to a progressive approach of broad inclusion of all potential stakeholders in their decision-making processes. We argue that states need to gather and incorporate more and better human dimensions (HD) information to fulfill their PTD responsibilities. We describe some of the barriers to increased use of HD and the changes in agency culture, staffing, data gathering, and decision-making processes necessary to integrate HD effectively and comport with the PTD. We conclude that in addition to increasing fulfillment of PTD responsibilities, increased use of HD information will help maintain agency relevance, increase political support, and secure broader agency funding.     

Non-governmental Organizations and Government Agencies Lead in Cultivating Positive Sea Turtle Conservation Attitudes

Considerable research has been conducted analyzing how demographic characteristics influence the public’s attitudes toward wildlife; however, less research of this type has been conducted in locations having long-standing species conservation efforts. Questionnaires were completed by residents living adjacent to such a location, the Archie Carr National Wildlife Refuge (ACNWR), to investigate which demographics explained residents’ knowledge of, attitudes toward, willingness to act for, and participation in sea turtle conservation. Residents who had a non-governmental organization (NGO) or government agency as their sea turtle information source had stronger positive attitudes toward sea turtles. Residents who possessed strong positive attitudes were more willing to engage in pro–sea turtle conservation behaviors. Overall, this research demonstrated that ACNWR residents’ source of sea turtle information being an NGO or government agency played a significant role in increasing residents’ knowledge of, attitudes toward, willingness to volunteer for, and participation in sea turtle conservation.     

Reducing concentrated animal feeding operations permitting requirements

Many owners and operators of concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFO) need to secure National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permits from the federal or state permitting authority. Because of the expense and inconvenience of permit applications, farm groups have challenged revisions to the federal CAFO Rule as well as state regulations claiming selected provisions exceeded the authority of the permitting agency. In 2011, 2 courts responded with decisions that clarify federal and state permitting regulations. Another goal of agricultural groups is to change the regulatory authority of the state from an environmental agency to a department of agriculture. These developments suggest that by altering the permitting authority, CAFO owners and operators may alleviate some of the burdens of the permitting process.     

Wildlife Value Orientations: A Quantitative Study of the General Public in Denmark

This article examined value orientations toward wildlife among the adult general Danish public in relation to age, sex, past and present residence, education, and income, using a U.S. survey instrument on Wildlife Value Orientations (WVO). The study used an Internet-based questionnaire sent to a representative sample of the Danish public in 2012 (n = 1,001). As predicted, there was a predominance of mutualists and a large segment of distanced individuals. Sex was the only variable shown to have a pronounced effect on WVO, with females being more mutualist-oriented than males. Information about the general public’s WVO can be used to check against the orientation of other specific groups such as landowners and hunters. It can also prove useful for developing specific hunting and wildlife policies such as certification of wildlife managers.     

Household Dynamics of Wildlife Value Orientations

Wildlife value orientations (WVOs) shape attitudes and behavior toward wildlife. Although demographic correlates of WVOs are well established, these relationships are largely unknown among children and within family units. The only previous study addressing these topics used fathers’ perceptions as proxies for family member WVOs. We surveyed North Carolina households (n = 136) to test hypotheses regarding whether individuals can assess household WVOs and what variables shape WVOs within households. Fathers and mothers accurately assessed WVOs of their children. Membership in a household was the most important predictor of an individual’s WVOs (accounting for 37% [ρ = .37] of the variance predicted by the model). Younger age, being female, and lack of participation in hunting were associated with more protectionist WVOs. These results provide the first household level support for divergence between generations from utilitarian toward protectionist WVOs. Our results suggest that household unit may be a critical element to consider in WVO research.     

Presidential Address — 2002: The Grassland Society of Southern Africa should be striving for greater synergy with the farming community

'Let me assure you all that our commitment to the preservation of wildlife and the habitat in the Maasai Mara reserve is total. We do not deny that the reserve is of vital economic importance to us, but we also firmly believe, and proclaim, that wildlife deserves to be protected for its own sake. The animals are God's creatures and we affirm their right to live and survive as undisturbed as possible in this busy and over-populated world. The Mara can provide a relief from the commercial pressures of profit and survival. We must thus emphasize that in the Maasai Mara reserve interests of wildlife are paramount.' Samson Ole Tuya, Chairman Narok County Council — Maasai Mara Tourism Workshop, March 1991

'The chances of wildlife surviving when people are hungry and poor are becoming increasingly slim.' Samson Ole Tuya, Member of Parliament, Narok South. Workshop — Defining the framework for management and conservation planning for the Maasai Mara ecosystem, November 1996

The Maasai Mara ecosystem has one of the richest assemblages of wildlife in the world and supports about 237 herbivores per km², making it one of the most productive natural terrestrial ecosystems. It maintains the greatest and most spectacular large mammal migration on earth and is the most highly visited tourist area in the East African region. Tourism generates millions of dollars annually while livestock and agriculture contribute significantly to the local and national economy. This paper examines the enormous threats facing the ecosystem and the efforts being made to keep the ecosystem open in order to support a vibrant tourist trade and a healthy livestock economy. These aspects are currently threatened by a burgeoning human population, land subdivision, changing land tenure systems, crop farming, poaching, habitat fragmentation, blockage of wildlife migratory corridors, habitat destruction, sedentarisation, environmental degradation and poverty. Wildlife conservation is in conflict with agriculture, while tourism has taken away the best grazing areas for livestock. The paper also reviews the ecological and socio-economic problems associated with tourism, land use changes and break down of traditional governance structures and how they have weakened the capacity of Maasai Mara to sustain a viable wildlife populations.     

Challenges for Multilevel Stakeholder Engagement in Public Trust Resource Governance

The trend in wildlife management over the last two decades has been to develop locally based approaches for responsiveness to local conditions, but some state wildlife agencies are finding the amount of staff time required to service this approach prohibitive. Although local engagement strategies have been lauded as assuring that public trust obligations of state government to citizens are met, we can expect that states with a local focus as their operational level of stakeholder engagement may opt to change their approach to reflect their resource limitations. We argue for comprehensive regional level effort to understand stakeholders augmented with local engagement processes where needed to deal with special circumstances in smaller areas within a region. Such an approach can be anticipated to have implications for stakeholder engagement and human dimensions research needs, which we discuss in the context of public trust resource administration and good governance of wildlife resources.     

Public Trust Principles and Trust Administration Functions in the North American Model of Wildlife Conservation: Contributions of Human Dimensions Research

The public trust doctrine (PTD) is the common law basis for governments to hold wildlife in trust for the benefit of current and future generations of Americans. Wildlife as a public trust resource is the foundation of the North American Model of Wildlife Conservation. We examine principles that underlie a trustee’s role in the context of the PTD and governmental responsibility. We evaluate purposes of and needs for human dimensions inquiry in execution of a trustee’s wildlife stewardship responsibility. We conclude human dimensions research is essential for government to fulfill its responsibilities as trustee, particularly considering the breadth and often conflicting interests of stakeholders. Human dimensions research can serve an important function in identifying and affirming core societal values toward wildlife that underpin the PTD and in monitoring shifts in society’s values to ensure resiliency of the trustee role and relevance and legitimacy of institutional norms of wildlife resource governance.     

Describing Human–Wildlife Interaction from a European Perspective

European researchers from both the natural and social sciences show growing interest in studying interactions between society and wildlife. A wealth of theoretical frameworks, concepts, and methods are used, but an integration of perspectives is lacking. This research note summarizes results from two workshops that included 63 delegates from 25 European countries, as well as a follow-up survey of 41 respondents. Two main theoretical approaches to the study of human–wildlife interactions were identified. One approach focuses on the collective societal level relying on theories of governance, social representation, deliberative procedures, and commons theory. The other approach targets individuals or groups, and is based on theories such as the cognitive hierarchy, theory of reasoned action, and theory of planned behavior. Interdisciplinary collaboration is needed to identify the best options for wildlife conservation and management in a more politically integrated Europe.     

Understanding Peer Influence in Hunter Harvest Decisions Using Social Network Theory and Analysis

State wildlife agencies are increasingly seeking the advice and cooperation of wildlife stakeholders, including that of private hunting cooperatives. While there is some evidence that the interests and actions of private deer cooperatives align with those of state wildlife agencies, little is known about the internal social mechanisms that explain this. Social network theory and analysis can shed some light on these internal group dynamics. This article used egocentric network analysis to examine the effect of peer groups on the antlerless harvest decisions of individuals in private deer cooperatives. Our primary result was that the members of one’s egocentric network influence the harvest behavior of that individual, providing some evidence for the potential of social network theory and analysis to understand and improve on the strategies used to address a variety of resource-related problems in wildlife management and conservation.     

Livestock Farmers Engage in Ecotourism as a Result of Beliefs and Attitudes Toward Wildlife on Communal Lands in Namibia

An individual’s decision to support conservation efforts can be affected by personal attitudes. We interviewed 100 indigenous livestock farmers on Ehirovipuka and ≠Khoadi //Hôas communal conservancies in Namibia. As conservancy support groups work with farmers, there is a need to understand what influences farmer decisions to engage in ecotourism activities for livelihood. We evaluated cognitive characteristics of farmers and their attitudes toward 10 species of wildlife. Farmers had negative attitudes toward predators, more positive attitudes toward meat-producing species and a hornbill (Tockus sp.), and moderate attitudes toward African elephant (Loxodonta africana) and black rhino (Diceros bicornis), which can cause damage but also attract tourists. We show support for a partial mediation model in which cognitive characteristics of farmers predicted attitudes toward predators and damage animals. The attitudes toward these species, in turn, predicted participation in the ecotourism industry.     

Development of Multispecies,Long-Term Monitoring Programs for Resource Management

There is growing interest among resource managers in implementing long-term wildlife monitoring. The process to develop such a program may seem daunting, however, because it requires determining the species, metrics, sampling methods, experimental design, and level of effort necessary to achieve the desired power for detecting meaningful changes. Failure to give these decisions proper attention often leads to suboptimal information for decisions and planning objectives. Our primary objectives were to develop alternative scenarios for a monitoring program, including power estimates and sampling effort required to detect population changes for small mammals on rangelands in southern Texas. Our secondary objective was to present a framework for developing customized monitoring programs for tracking wildlife populations over time. We trapped small mammals using ~ 28 000 trap nights each year from 2014 to 2016 resulting in 13 183 captures of nine species. We estimated abundances and occupancy in each year for each species and conducted power analyses using simulations. We used these results to develop four multispecies monitoring scenarios: two with distinctly different levels of effort with abundance as the focal metric and two for monitoring occupancy. The most effort-intensive scenario required trapping 40 grids for 6 consecutive nights each yr. With this effort, we predicted it would be possible to detect annual changes in abundance of ≤ 10% after 10 yr for four species and net declines in occupancy of ≤ 50% after 10 yr for five species with a power of 0.90. The least effort-intensive scenario required trapping 30 transects for 4 consecutive nights each yr. We predicted this effort would allow for the detection of annual changes in occupancy rates between 35% and 55% after 10 yr for five species. Our study is an example for land managers, providing general guidelines for developing rigorous, long-term monitoring programs specific to their objectives.     

The role of wildlife tourism in conservation of endangered species: Implications of safari tourism for conservation of the Arctic fox in Sweden

There are both positive and negative impacts on wildlife associated with wildlife tourism. In Sweden, the endangered Arctic fox is subject to a growing tourist interest. In the Helags mountain region there are guided Arctic fox safari tours that provide visitors with information about the Arctic fox. A survey of five separate groups of visitors in the region revealed that knowledge about the status of Arctic foxes and awareness of the behavioral guidelines for Arctic fox encounters improved after participation in a safari tour and with increasing Arctic fox interaction. We propose a schematic model summarizing the diverse ways in which wildlife tourism affects wildlife and their relative importance for conservation. The Arctic fox population in Sweden is small and sensitive to disturbance, but the positive impacts of Arctic fox tourism seem to compensate for the negative and contribute to their conservation under the current level of tourism pressure.     

Pet Ownership,Attitude Toward Pets,and Support for Wildlife Management Strategies

Pet ownership affects engagement with animal-related activities and may be related to support of wildlife management. British participants (N = 220) completed an online survey providing information on pet ownership, attitudes toward pets, and support for wildlife management strategies. Within this sample, pet owners and individuals with positive attitudes toward pets were less supportive of strategies that put human needs before the needs of wildlife, more supportive of strategies attempting to avoid species extinctions, and opposed to strategies requiring compromises of individual species. Pet owners’ affectionate attitudes toward animals and opposition to their exploitation may be important in dictating attitudes toward wildlife. Conservation planners could apply these findings when seeking support for management strategies that constrain freedoms of pets and wildlife. Utilizing the sympathetic attitudes of pet owners toward animals by focusing on welfare and survival benefits for wildlife species may help foster support for management strategies.