Selection of Non-timber Forest Species for Community and Private Plantations in the High and Low Altitude Areas of Makawanpur District,Nepal

The domestication of non-timber forest species (NTFS) is receiving increasing attention from developing economies. However, little is known about the selection of NTFS in Nepal for commercial uses. Sixteen selection criteria were developed and NTFS were ranked for community and private plantations in both low altitude and high altitude areas of Makawanpur district, Nepal, by workshops of multiple NTFS stakeholders. The rigorous scoring of 12 ecologically screened NTFS against the 16 selection criteria revealed that kurilo and sarpagandh are highly preferred NTFS for low altitude areas whereas chiraito and jatamanshi are highly preferred for high altitude. This finding coincides with the general perception of participants and contemporary literature. These are the species being rapidly depleted from the natural forests. Rapid decline of valuable species creates strong motivation from stakeholders for planting them on community and private land.

Nursery transplant practices determine seedling root quality of two subtropical eucalypts

This study assessed the influence of various operational transplanting procedures on J-rooting compared to a no transplanting approach of direct sowing into Hiko trays. Eucalyptus dunnii Maiden and E. pilularis Smith seedlings were examined. All transplanting treatments increased severity and incidence of J-rooting for both species. Gently loosening seedling plugs by hand prior to their removal from cells of 512 trays and gentle manual production of seedling planting holes (dibbering) in potting media in Hiko cells, rather than mechanically loosening and mechanical dibbering, reduced the incidence of J-rooting for both species. Disturbance of seedling plugs from mechanized loosening and increased compaction from mechanical dibbering are believed to have a negative effect on root development. Direct sowing produced seedlings with highest root quality when measured at 27 weeks.

Indirect methods of large-scale forest biomass estimation

Forest biomass and its change over time have been measured at both local and large scales, an example for the latter being forest greenhouse gas inventories. Currently used methodologies to obtain stock change estimates for large forest areas are mostly based on forest inventory information as well as various factors, referred to as biomass factors, or biomass equations, which transform diameter, height or volume data into biomass estimates. However, while forest inventories usually apply statistically sound sampling and can provide representative estimates for large forest areas, the biomass factors or equations used are, in most cases, not representative, because they are based on local studies. Moreover, their application is controversial due to the inconsistent or inappropriate use of definitions involved. There is no standardized terminology of the various factors, and the use of terms and definitions is often confusing. The present contribution aims at systematically summarizing the main types of biomass factors (BF) and biomass equations (BE) and providing guidance on how to proceed when selecting, developing and applying proper factors or equations to be used in forest biomass estimation. The contribution builds on the guidance given by the IPCC (Good practice guidance for land use, land-use change and forestry, 2003) and suggests that proper application and reporting of biomass factors and equations and transparent and consistent reporting of forest carbon inventories are needed in both scientific literature and the greenhouse gas inventory reports of countries.

The effect of competition on individual tree basal area growth in mature stands of Pinus cooperi Blanco in Durango (Mexico)

In this paper, we evaluated how well-selected distance-dependent and distance-independent competition indices explain individual tree basal area growth of trees, growing in mature and even-aged stands of Pinus cooperi Blanco. A total of 18 competition measures were analyzed of which six do not need tree location (distance-independent) and 12 that utilize tree location (distance-dependent). The competition situation of a stand and/or an individual tree was studied using 11 different competitor selection methods. The mean square error reduction relative to no-competition was used to judge the performance of each competition index. It was found that the best distance-independent competition indices performed as well as the best distance-dependent competition indices. It was concluded that the BALMOD-index would be a good competition index to be incorporated into further individual tree basal area growth models for the study area.

Biomass expansion factors for Sitka spruce (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Picea sitchensis</Emphasis> (Bong.) Carr.) in Ireland

The assessment of a forest resource in national inventories provides a firm basis for the calculation of biomass and carbon (C) stocks of forests. Biomass expansion factors (BEFs) and conversion factors provide a robust and simple method of converting from forest tree stem volume to total forest biomass. These factors should be constructed on the basis of nationally specific data in order to take account of regional differences in growth rates, management practices, etc. The objective of this study is to improve the accuracy of biomass estimation by calculating a range of age-dependant BEFs from representative data that more accurately describe the allometry of present forests. The results from this study show that the allocation of biomass to compartments in forest stands and throughout a rotation varies considerably, and that the use of BEFs for the calculation of C stocks in forests of sub-timber dimensions is highly impractical.

Examining disadoption of gum arabic production in Sudan

Gum arabic production in Sudan has developed over the years in a well-established traditional bush-fallow system in which the gum tree (Acacia senegal) is rotated with annual crops. Following the Sahel drought, the gum area has suffered from deforestation and gum production has declined. Several programs have been developed to stimulate gum production; however, many original adopters have disadopted gum production and the bush-fallow system. In this paper we apply a logit model to study the decision-making behavior of farmers in west Sudan and to identify the socio-economic factors influencing disadoption of gum production and gum agroforestry system. Variables that measure farmer’s wealth were found significant in explaining the disadoption behavior. Off-farm work was also found to positively influence the disadoption decision. Results show that a higher level of income from annual crops decreases the probability of disadoption, which suggests that annual crops and gum production do not compete but rather complement each other within the farm household economy. Therefore, policy measures aiming to boost the production of annual crops in the region might reduce seasonal labor migration and accordingly stimulate gum production.

Effect of seed coverings and seed pretreatments on the germination response of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Alnus glutinosa</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Betula pubescens</Emphasis> seeds

The germination of common alder (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.) and downey birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) seeds is often poor in bare-root nurseries. The effect of a variety of seed coverings and a few seed pretreatments on seedling emergence was examined in this study in an attempt to address this problem. Seeds of each species were sown in trays containing nursery soil, covered with grit, gravel, sand, combinations of these coverings, a hydromulch or a sealed plastic cloche and then incubated for 6 weeks at 17–20°C. The grit combined with sand or gravel, the hydromulch and the cloche increased seedling emergence when compared with the standard grit. In another experiment, seeds of each species were fully imbibed (FI) (>50% moisture content, MC), as per standard practice, or adjusted to target MC (TMC) (30–35% MC) levels, and then chilled to release dormancy. Some seeds of each MC treatment were primed at 20°C for 2 days following chilling, after which all seeds were evaluated in laboratory tests and a nursery trial. Germination potential of the FI seeds declined in the lab tests by the second test date, which was reflected in low seedling emergence in the nursery in birch. The primed FI seeds of alder germinated most rapidly in the nursery, but other effects were not significant. Seedling emergence was better in the nursery in response to the TMC than the FI pretreatment in birch.

Small-scale Agar (Aquilaria agallocha Roxb.) Based Cottage Enterprises in Maulvibazar District of Bangladesh: Production, Marketing and Potential Contribution to Rural Development

Globally, trade in agar-based products is growing rapidly due to their recent adoption as an ingredient in the cosmetics and pharmaceuticals sector. In Bangladesh, people living in some north-eastern districts have been engaged in the production, processing and trading of such products for several decades. These practices, which they consider as the lifeblood of their existence, have been inherited from their ancestors. This paper reports a case study carried out in Maulvibazar district exploring the production and marketing, and industry problems, of agar-based enterprises and their potential contribution to socio-economic development. An exploratory survey was undertaken over 30 randomly selected agar-based factories during December 2005–April 2006, with entrepreneurs of the factories personally interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. The majority of the factories of the area were found to depend on local sources of raw materials to produce agar-based products. About 514 full and part-time workers are employed in the factories. Average annual expenditure, revenue and net annual income per factory for three consecutive years 2003–2005 of the study were estimated as Tk 63,980, Tk 111,414 and Tk 47,435, respectively, being highest where attar (agar oil) of superior grade was produced for export. There appears to be a sustainable source of raw materials, availability of technical and financial assistance and opportunity for expansion of market facilities to secure the maximum benefit achievable from this highly promising industry.

Challenges of Socio-economically Evaluating Wildfire Management on Non-industrial Private and Public Forestland in the Western United States

Non-industrial private forests (NIPFs) and public forests in the United States generate many non-market benefits for landholders and society generally. These values can be both enhanced and diminished by wildfire management. This paper considers the challenges of supporting economically efficient allocation of wildfire suppression resources in a social cost-benefit analysis framework when non-market values are important. These challenges include substantial gaps in scientific understanding about how the spatial and temporal provision of non-market values are affected by wildfire, the limited utility of benefit transfer in wildfire assessment, a lack of studies that have estimated marginal willingness-to-pay to conserve non-market values, violation of consumer budget constraints, and the infeasibility of valuing indigenous cultural heritage. These challenges present serious impediments to adapting price-based decision-support tools to accommodate non-market values and support decision-making consistent with contemporary federal wildfire policy. Departure from the historic range and variability of ecological conditions is proposed as a complementary framework to support wildfire management decisions when non-market values are important on NIPF and public forestland.

Using 3D architectural models to assess light availability and root bulkiness in coconut agroforestry systems

Using 3D architectural models to assess light availability and root bulkiness in agroforestry systems. In many parts of the humid tropics, coconut trees are frequently intercropped with food crops, or tree crops such as cocoa. The performance of such systems depends on planting patterns, but also on growing conditions for crops below the coconut canopy throughout the development of the coconut trees. We used a modelling approach providing indicators for assessing above-ground competition for light and below-ground competition for space, in order to optimize intercropping in coconut smallholdings. Light transmission and the number of coconut roots in the interrow were assessed in coconut smallholdings from 6 to 60 years old. The modelling of light transmission through coconut stands was based on three-dimensional virtual coconut trees and a numerical light model that computed the shade cast by coconut trees on underlying crops. Root colonization in the interrow was assessed with virtual 3D coconut root systems. Our results showed that intercropping with shade-tolerant species was not limited by light transmission from the 35th year after coconut tree planting. However, at that stage of coconut tree development, the density of primary roots in the interrow limited intercrop development, especially for root and tuber crops. Alteration of the planting pattern over time increased light transmission but did not significantly affect root density. This modelling approach, which involved little parameterization that was easily done, appeared to be an efficient tool for recommending coconut tree planting patterns and densities, as well as indicating intercrop potential depending on their location in the most sunlit areas with minimum root competition.

Virtual trees and light capture: a method for optimizing agroforestry stand design

In agroforestry systems, the distribution of light transmitted under tree canopies can be a limiting factor for the development of intercrops. The light available for intercrops depends on the quantity of light intercepted by tree canopies and, consequently, on the architecture of the tree species present. The influence of tree architecture on light transmission was analysed using dynamic 3D architectural models. The architectural analysis of Acacia mangium and Tectona grandis was performed in Indonesian agroforestry systems with trees aged from 1 to 3 years. 3D virtual trees were then generated with the AmapSim simulation software and 3D virtual experiments in which tree age, planting density, planting pattern and pruning intensity varied were reconstructed in order to simulate light available for the crop. Canopy closure of trees was more rapid in A. mangium than in T. grandis agroforestry systems; after 3 years the quantity of light available for A. mangium intercrops was three times lower than under T. grandis. Simulations with A. mangium showed that practices such as pruning and widening tree spacing enable to increase the total transmitted light within the stand. On T. grandis, modification of the tree row azimuth resulted in changes in the spatial and seasonal distribution of light available for the intercrops. These results are discussed in terms of agroforestry system management.

SWOT analyses and SWOT strategy formulation for forest owner cooperations in Austria

Forest owner cooperations (FOC) are bundling wood supply from small-scale forests and some also offer additional services, such as wood harvesting or planting. FOCs are growing throughout Europe in terms of the managed timber volume. The increasing timber demand of forest-based industries as well as the new, rapidly growing demand for energy plants could lead to an under-supply in the following years in Europe. Because of high harvesting arrears in small-scale forests, FOCs are seen as an opportunity to overcome this foreseen timber shortage. The paper maps out timber mobilisation strategies using the SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) approach.

How to foster good husbandry of private native forests

It is generally agreed that effective conservation requires the cooperation of private landholders to complement reserve-based efforts, but there is little agreement about how this can best be achieved. Various stakeholders lobby for tough regulations, for greater landholder freedom, and for incentives for activities or outcomes. A review of these alternatives suggests an emerging consensus that incentives are the most effective approach. Policy-makers should consider incentive-based approaches such as stewardship support to foster conservation outcomes on private lands.

The potential of auctioning contracts for conservation policy

This article studies the possibility of using auctions as a policy instrument in conservation programs. In particular, it provides insight into the main concerns that need to be dealt with when implementing conservation auctions. To show the cost saving potential of this policy instrument, we also calculate the social welfare improvement that can be obtained for an afforestation project in Flanders. When developing conservation policies, it is thus worthwhile to consider auctions as an alternative policy instrument.

Consuming Fuel and Fuelling Consumption: Modelling Human Caloric Demands and Fuelwood Use

This paper describes a conceptual framework that was developed to integrate livestock, human, cultivation and forest constraints to model community fuelwood consumption over a 25-year planning horizon. This framework was constructed as an energy balance based on human caloric requirements in order to examine the effects of household-level decisions for nutrition, fuelwood and land use. A scenario from a virtual community in Uganda is presented to illustrate the utility of this model to allow rapid policy and scenario evaluation. User-defined inputs combined with published research data are used in simulating resource responses and energy consumption rates. This model is a potential tool to monitor fuelwood consumption and to understand the implications of various land-use practices.

Woodland Management and Public Good Outputs: Appraising the Trade-offs in English Woodlands

This paper examines the trade-offs between woodland management for timber and public good outputs in English woodlands. Recent evidence suggests that some public good values may be declining as a result of a lack of woodland management. Such under-management has been attributed to the decline in timber values and reduction in the productivity of woodlands and forests for timber products. It is argued that assessing the management needs of woodlands in order to enhance public good outputs presents a complex challenge and often depends on a variety of factors, including location, type of woodland, age, condition, substitutability and ownership motivation. However, in most instances a moderate level of management (whether for timber or otherwise) is likely to be beneficial for public good outputs.

Social and ecological issues for private native forestry in north-eastern New South Wales,Australia

Forests in north-eastern New South Wales have often been the focus of controversy. The tension between production and preservation continues and hampers current negotiations for a code of practice for private native forestry. The structure of many private forests reflects past mismanagement, and silvicultural intervention would benefit both conservation and production objectives, but such intervention is rarely financially viable. This paper sets out the economic and ecological basis for private native forestry. Both the timber industry and nature-based tourism are major contributors to the local economy, and both rely in part on private native forests. Draft regulations currently under negotiation do not offer incentives for improved private forest management.

Fracture of air-dried and fully saturated parallel strand lumber (PSL) under impact loading

The behaviour of air-dried and fully saturated parallel strand lumber (PSL) was determined under both static and impact loading. It was found that the moisture content had a significant effect on peak stress and deformation, stress rate, time to failure, and fracture energy. In addition, the results from this study were combined with those from previous studies in order to obtain a more general relationship between strength and stress rate for air-dried PSL.

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Adaptation to Change and Re-designing of Governance Systems: Cases from Small-Scale Rural Forestry

Changes in small-scale forest governance as a reaction to global changes are viewed from the system dynamics perspective, focused on two levels of dynamic systems: the policy system with sets of interactions at the national level and the management system at the local level. These interactions are considered through permanent adaptation and re-shaping of stakeholders’ networks and positions provoking further changes in the systems. Empirical evidence has been obtained from two case studies related to small-scale rural forestry in distinct contexts—France (the Territorial Forestry Charters) and Kyrgyzstan (collaborative forest management and leasing of forest plots)—and viewed through a theoretical framework of social-political systems dynamics. The changes caused by the systems’ capacity for adaptability and resilience are expressed through a double spiral of decision-making, characterising the interactions between national policies and local management practices. The analysis leads to a conclusion that changes are basically determined by the formal and informal stakeholders’ strategies developed in a specific context and their mutual adaptation aimed at system resilience.

Effects of management techniques on the establishment of eucalypt seedlings on farmland: a review

Research into the effects of seven management techniques on survival and growth of eucalypt seedlings planted on farmland is reviewed. The techniques include: pre- and post-planting weed control; soil cultivation; fertiliser; mulch; tree guards/shelters; and irrigation. The initial and ongoing effects of each technique are discussed—including the effects of timing, type and quantity. Consideration is given to site, species and climatic influences. A statistical analysis of the published survival rates is then presented, to provide information on the relative importance of, and interactions between, practices. The analysis shows that maximum survival may be achieved by using one or two management techniques. Combining this result with the insights gained from the review suggests that the use of soil cultivation and post-planting weed control are likely to achieve the greatest improvements in early eucalypt survival and growth.