Needs and expectations of German and Chinese children for livable urban green spaces revealed by the method of empathy-based stories

One of the important features of cities is to provide high-quality outdoor environments for various groups of citizens. Although children are frequent users of green spaces, the knowledge and perspectives applied in planning and design of urban green spaces are mostly defined by adults. This results in spaces and practices that may limit the daily lives and creativity of urban children. Promoting child-friendly cities benefits from knowledge produced by children themselves, regarding their perceptions and experiences, as well as ideas and suggestions. This study provides empirical results concerning children’s needs and mental images for urban green spaces in two urban areas in two countries (Chengdu, China, and Ruhr Region, Germany). 765 children, ages 8–10 were surveyed through the method of empathy-based stories (MEBS). Participants were asked to use their imagination to write stories according to given scenarios. Our study shows that MEBS can be used to gather meaningful data with children, and that children are an important stakeholder group in urban planning, landscape design and management with an ability to express their diverse needs and preferences towards green spaces. Both designed green spaces (e.g. gardens, parks) and wild nature (e.g. forests, meadows) can offer a range of activities and experiences for children in their everyday lives: opportunities for play, socializing, contact with nature, aesthetic and restorative experiences, learning and exploration. Our findings include indications of children’s awareness of the diverse ecosystem services that green spaces provide, as well as of urban sustainability and livability. While we found German and Chinese children to have corresponding needs and expectations regarding urban green spaces and nature, we also found some variation. We suggest that the use of, and experiences in green spaces are linked not only to the landscape but also to conceptual-cultural contexts.     

Qualities and functions ascribed to urban cemeteries across the capital cities of Scandinavia

Cemeteries are not only burial places that provide a public service. They are also green urban spaces with cultural and natural qualities and could be integrated into the green infrastructure planning system. In this study, we explore the extent to which environmental qualities and functions are ascribed to urban cemeteries in the municipal master plans, green infrastructure plans and websites of the capital cities of Scandinavia. In addition, we conduct a focus-group interview in Oslo with six municipal employees representing green space planning/management, cultural heritage and cemetery administration/management, focusing on a broad perspective of qualities ascribed to urban cemeteries. The document study shows that, across the Scandinavian countries, cemeteries are mainly included in the concept of green infrastructure but they are not ascribed qualities similar to those ascribed to public green spaces; instead, most qualities are related to cultural history. However, Copenhagen municipality has a more inclusive approach, describing the cemeteries as green spaces and inviting people to use them for recreational purposes. The municipality even has a policy document with a strategy on how to combine the primary function of a burial site with new needs for recreational space. In the focus-group interview, cemeteries are described as static places, peaceful and quiet places, green spaces, spaces in which to experience darkness, and places for all (multiple use). There is relatively high agreement among interviewees about the recreational qualities of cemeteries, even though the cemetery administration/management emphasizes several times that its main focus is on accommodating the bereaved and their relatives. In the discussion, we focus on differences between the different Scandinavian countries in the qualities and functions ascribed to cemeteries, and examine potential explanations for why cemeteries are mostly described as green spaces, part of the green infrastructure, but treated as private green spaces in the urban planning context.     

The long-term prospects of citizens managing urban green space: From place making to place-keeping?

This paper discusses the long-term management or ‘place-keeping’ of urban green space by citizens and highlights enabling and constraining factors that play a crucial role in this continuity. While authorities have historically been in charge of managing public green spaces, there is an increased involvement of citizens in green space management. It is therefore relevant to study how citizens can contribute towards place-keeping and realize a continuity in managing and conserving the qualities of urban green spaces.We contribute to these debates by looking at three European cases characterized by long-term involvement of citizens in place-keeping. We conducted document analysis and interviewing of key informants to study green space management over time. Our analysis highlights what factors have contributed towards the continuity of this management, but also shows challenges and difficulties which citizens have experienced. Based on our fieldwork, we identify three factors of particular relevance for the continuity of place-keeping involving citizens.We found that long-term continuity is supported by a degree of formalization: established rules and procedures within groups provide stability to citizens. We also highlight the importance of adaptive capacity: citizens need to be able to adapt to contextual changes in order to cope with external political, socio-economic and cultural developments over time. The supporting role of authorities was also key in legitimizing and supporting place-keeping by citizens. Authorities can support place-keeping by citizens by providing security via stable policies, formally protecting the involved spaces, allowing long-term management contracts and contributing resources.     

Shortcuts in urban green spaces: An analysis of incidental nature experiences associated with active mobility trips

Nature experiences and active mobility both deliver well-being and health benefits but have rarely been investigated together. Conceptualizations of nature experiences largely focus on intention, and the planned motivations for visits. However, nature experiences can also be perceived incidentally, if daily living activities like trips are encouraged towards green spaces. In a public participation GIS (PPGIS) survey of five local districts in Copenhagen, 517 respondents mapped 688 places along their walking or cycling shortcut trips through green spaces. This study investigated what types of green space provide opportunities for such shortcuts, what incidental nature experiences can be perceived there and the different responses of pedestrians and cyclists. This study also explored the relation between incidental nature experiences and green space characteristics in the form of tree cover density. Lastly, this study explored whether frequent short trips through green spaces relate to nature connectedness. The results show that public green spaces and urban cemeteries in Copenhagen allow for such shortcut trips. Enjoyment of pleasing views is the most perceived incidental nature experience. Pedestrians are found more prone to experience surprise, inspiration and emotion, while cyclists prefer shortcuts close to water, which they value highly. The study suggests that high tree cover density is key to delivering incidental nature experiences. Furthermore, the study shows that people who make frequent trips through green spaces have higher levels of nature connectedness, indicating that incidental nature experiences during shortcut trips trigger the reconnection of people and nature. The study’s results support a synergistic approach to integrating green spaces and active mobility in planning and management practice, where incidental nature experiences should be emphasized.     

How to encourage parents to let children play in nature: Factors affecting parental perception of children's nature play

Despite the benefits to the children playing in nature being widely recognized, merely enhancing children’s interest in nature will not effectively increase their nature experience because children’s activity nowadays is increasingly under their parents’ supervision. Therefore, to identify effective strategies, it is important to understand parental perceptions of children’s nature play and their influencing factors. We explored the impact of factors including parents’ childhood nature experience (CNE), nature relatedness (NR), degree of urbanization, and socio-demographic characteristics using the results of an online survey of 516 parents in Japan. We found that most parents acknowledged the importance of children’s nature play; however, they expressed their concerns about barriers against it, particularly related to incidents such as accidents and strangers. Although NR and CNE were the key contributors to parents’ understanding of nature’s benefits, these factors did not decrease their fear of incidents involving their children. Parents were highly unlikely to permit their children to play without adult supervision in green spaces, except parks; this was contrary to the freedom they were given in their childhood. This is probably due to parents’ heightened concerns about incidents, even though actual incident rates have been reduced. Therefore, a key approach to encourage parents to allow their children to play in nature is to mitigate their anxiety about incidents. Since parks are the only green space where most parents nowadays allow their children to play unsupervised, enhancing the quality of natural elements in the parks will enrich children’s interaction with nature, while alleviating parents' uneasiness about children's safety.     

Design guidelines for the Dashilar,Beijing Open Green Space Redevelopment Project

When an urban redevelopment project is planned, the design needs to reflect the preferences of the users of the planned space. In China, however, the preferences of residents have rarely been reflected in projects dealing with public places such as open green spaces in urban settings. This paper employs three independent conjoint analyses covering components of open green space, including locational conditions, physical conditions, and greenery conditions in order to propose the most preferable design for a new open green space. The results of choice simulation showed that the users prefer the private garden style to the general public park style for the new open green space in Dashilar. Our research with three independent conjoint analyses is expected to provide specific guidelines for open green space design as a whole, which is intended to satisfy potential users of the space.     

The link between school environments and student academic performance

Healthy school environments are critical for children to learn, play, and grow. Although research focusing specifically on the benefits of green spaces on academic performance is limited, the current research does in fact point to the link between greater amounts of trees on campuses and higher academic performance. We are beginning to develop an understanding of the benefits of trees but only a few comprehensive studies have been performed that measure the effects of trees on academic achievement. We examine the relationship among green spaces, students’ socio-economic factors, and their academic performance by using spatial measurements in geographic information system (GIS).The research study included 219 District of Columbia (D.C.) public schools. School environment measurements (e.g., land cover), school demographic data (e.g., number of students, student teacher ratio and free lunch enrollment), and school performance data (e.g., DC Comprehensive Student Assessment in Mathematics and Reading) were collected and georeferenced. GIS was used to integrate spatially dependent information regarding student and environmental factors with the land cover data.We found that schools with more trees had a higher percentage of proficient or advanced scores in Mathematics and Reading standardized tests after controlling for school size, student teacher ratio, and free lunch enrollment. However, not all types of landscapes have the same beneficial properties. Large expanses of land, “featureless landscapes,” including large areas of campus lawns and athletic fields have negative effects on academic performance. These results may help to guide the decisions made by landscape architects on the basis on evidence when they plan new and renovate existing schools.     

Value negotiation and professional self-regulation – Environmental concern in the design of the built environment

Built environment design professionals balance competing requirements for human comfort, aesthetics and ecological integrity in their projects. Among them, landscape designers play an important role in optimising the benefits derived from urban green spaces. This study critically considers value dimensions and domains that impinge on professionals’ decision making and environmental values that are applicable to built environment design. It specifically identifies the dominant group-based value domains and environmental values in local practice and examines how landscape designers determine the relative importance of competing values in urban South Africa. The study made use of semi-structured interviews with long-standing figures in the industry. The findings indicate that the political change, the economy and the varied climate and landscape character are contextual influences that strongly shape regional social constructions of urban nature. These constructions emphasise instrumental utility values that juxtapose fundamental values and overshadow less urgent eudemonistic and intrinsic environmental values. In the design process, designers trade off artistic pursuits for utility values, with implications for aesthetics and quality. The contextual influences undermine value pluralism. Current trade-offs arguably perpetuate a local legacy of the uneven distribution of quality green spaces. Promisingly, designers show environmental concern and value for sustainability, indigenous plants, utility, quality and safety. The potential for designers to strengthen bonds with urban nature lies in the creation of aesthetic experiences that build on existing local affinities to landscape character and indigenous species. Professional bodies have an important task to assist built environment designers in creating cities that preserve human-nature relationships.     

The role of greenspace deprivation in children’s decision-making

We explored the role of long-term greenspace deprivation in how children evaluate potential rewards and punishments and use this information to make decisions. We used data from the Millennium Cohort Study (MCS), a large population-based longitudinal birth cohort in the UK. Reward and punishment sensitivity was measured at the age 11 data wave with the Cambridge Gambling Task (CGT). Our sample (N = 1701; 51 % male) included children who, as at the age 11 wave, had lived in the same address in urban England since the beginning of MCS and had valid data on the CGT. Our analysis adjusted for families’ selection into neighbourhoods, children’s pubertal status, sex, ethnicity and cognitive ability but also several important aspects of the home’s and the neighbourhood’s physical and social environments. Even after full adjustment, children growing up in the least green neighbourhoods showed less aversion to risk (they scored higher on risk-taking), and the association was similar across sexes. However, long-term absence of local greenspace was not significantly associated with other aspects of reward and punishment sensitivity, including risk adjustment, deliberation time or delay aversion, even after minimal adjustment. Long-term greenspace deprivation seems uniquely predictive of fast decision strategies in children.     

Animals in urban green spaces in relation to mental restorative quality

Despite the important roles that animals play in ecosystems, their functions in urban green spaces are often overlooked. To fill this gap, this study explored the effects of four animal species on the mental restorative quality of urban green spaces by comparing observers’ response to pictures with and without animals. The results indicated that swans, deer, and pigeons which were unthreatening to humans could significantly improve mental restoration of observers, and comparatively, swans had the strongest effect. Conversely, unleashed dogs were a potential threat to humans, and decreased the mental restorative quality of urban green spaces. The mechanism of animals’ effects on mental restoration and the differential effects of four animal species were discussed. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study addressing the mental health impacts of animals in landscapes, and the results suggest that “animal-inclusive landscape design” has a positive impact on urban green spaces.     

The role of greenery for physical activity play at school grounds

Greenery is assumed to promote physical activity at school grounds by facilitating open and flexible play situations that engage many children. The role of greenery for school ground activity was investigated at two schools, one of which contained a substantial amount of greenery and the other one little greenery. All in all 197 children from 4th (10–11 years) and 6th grade (12–13 years), were involved in a one week field study, documenting self-reported school ground use, their favourite places and favourite activities and counting their steps by pedometer. The most common school ground activities were related to the use of balls as part of different sports, games and other playful activity. The more extensive green areas belonged to children's favourite places, but were little used, whereas settings with a mix of green and built elements in proximity to buildings were well-used favourites. Physical activity in steps was similar at the two schools, but on average girls got less of the activity they need during recess. Greenery was found important by contributing to settings attractive to visit for girls as well as boys and for younger as well as older children, if located in ways that also supported peer interaction and various games.     

Cemeteries in transformation – A Swiss community conflict study

For the first time, this study presents a natural experiment describing and explaining selected stakeholders’ attitudes toward the transformation of cemeteries into urban green spaces. In 2020, a real-life community conflict unfolded in Bern, the capital of Switzerland, over plans to close the smallest of its three municipal cemeteries by 2023. This study analyzes a representative sample (N = 519) of the city’s adult population and that of the adjacent town, Ostermundigen, capturing the views of residents of the conflict district and contrasting them with those of people living outside the district. It also compares attitudes of cemetery visitors and non-visitors. Survey interviews were conducted via telephone and through an online panel. The study focuses on conflicts triggered by alternative land-use plans, highlighting the need to include groups that are both familiar and unfamiliar with cemeteries. Interestingly, the latter group proved to be more open to change. The local meaning of cemeteries and municipal green urban-space policies are crucial context parameters, as demonstrated by the strong opposition to cemetery transformation in affected areas. The underlying beliefs of opponents and proponents are explored qualitatively and found to be complex and multidimensional. Individual attitude predictors include age and personal emotional attributes. Finally, factor analysis is used to develop a typology of users. The four emerging user types are linked to different perceptions of “the nature of cemeteries” and attitudes toward innovative plans (e.g., whether to create burial spaces for pets or a restaurant within the cemetery grounds, both of which received significant support). The findings inform policy decisions related to urban green-space management while balancing the interests of various groups. User perspectives should be reconciled by focusing on “dialogues of values” and participatory approaches, which complement information-centered municipal policies.     

Trees as affordances for connectedness to place– a framework to facilitate children’s relationship with nature

This study, informed by phenomenology and ethnography, explores urban children’s relationship with trees in a garden camp context: what are trees for urban children? Studying Finnish 7- to 12-year-old children, the research employed triangulation: participant and non-participant observation methods with mixed data collection over the course of three years. Engaging in grounded theory analysis after an intermission, the study unites the theoretical constructs of affordance and connectedness to place. Based on empirical observations, this study provides a theoretical framework to clarify the phased process of how urban children’s connectedness to place is evolving. Exploitation of tree affordances during place-based play reflected connectedness to place; utilization of trees became more versatile over time. The results showed trees to be intriguing and multifaceted, satisfying many of the children’s private and social needs. Trees provided the materials, space and often purpose and contents for the actual play that could not have thrived without them. In addition, children learned to manage possible tree-related risks mainly from experience and through scaffolding with peers. Recommendations for supporting beneficial nature contact emphasize allowing child-directed, place-based play time and planning biodiverse, low-maintenance spaces with a wide variety of trees that will invite children to use green spaces according to their needs.     

Challenges of urban green space management in the face of using inadequate data

Effective urban planning, and urban green space management in particular, require proper data on urban green spaces. The potential of urban green spaces to provide benefits to urban inhabitants (ecosystem services) depends on whether they are managed as a comprehensive system of urban green infrastructure, or as isolated islands falling under the responsibility of different stakeholders. Meanwhile, different urban green space datasets are based on different definitions, data sources, sampling techniques, time periods and scales, which poses important challenges to urban green infrastructure planning, management and research. Using the case study of Lodz, the third largest city in Poland, and an additional analysis of 17 other Polish cities, we compare data from five publicly available sources: 1) public statistics, 2) the national land surveying agency, 3) satellite imagery (Landsat data), 4) the Urban Atlas, 5) the Open Street Map. The results reveal large differences in the total amount of urban green spaces in the cities as depicted in different datasets. In Lodz, the narrowly interpreted public statistics data, which are aspatial, suggest that green spaces account for only 12.8% of city area, while the most comprehensive dataset from the national land surveying agency reveals the figure of 61.2%. The former dataset, which excludes many types of green spaces (such as arable land, private and informal green spaces), is still the most commonly used. The analysis of the 17 other cities confirms the same pattern. This results in broader institutional failures related to urban green infrastructure planning, management, and research, including a lack of awareness of green space quality (e.g. connectivity) and benefits (ecosystem services), and the related political disregard for urban green spaces. Our comparison suggests that a better understanding of green space data sources is necessary in urban planning, and especially when planning urban green infrastructure.     

Systems approach to the sustainable management of urban public parks

Public green spaces are becoming crucial components of any sustainable community because of their multiple ecological, economic and sociocultural benefits. More efforts are being directed towards creating livelier spaces. Unfortunately, there is less adequate attention to their long-term upkeep. Both research and practice focus more on design aspects of public spaces and parks than on their management. Realising the importance of management, this research is addressing this recognised gap by providing a comprehensive study of the management process. It draws on previous public spaces and green spaces management literature to define four main management requirements: being responsive to context, setting direction, managing performance and dealing with resources. Guided by the systems approach and sustainability concepts, the management requirements and process are presented in a framework that combines different levels of management with the internal dynamics of the public park. This framework can be a useful tool for researchers, designers, decision-makers and managers.     

Why viewing nature is more fascinating and restorative than viewing buildings: A closer look at perceived complexity

The present paper addresses the question which visual features trigger people’s often more positive affective responses to natural compared to built scenes. Building on notions about visual complexity and fractal geometry, we propose that perceived complexity of magnified scene parts can predict the greater fascinating and restorative qualities of natural versus built scenes. This prediction was tested in an experiment in which 40 participants viewed and rated 40 images of unspectacular natural and built scenes in their original size, and at 400% and 1600% magnification levels. Results showed that the original, unmagnified natural scenes were viewed longer and rated more restorative than built scenes, and that these differences were statistically mediated by the greater perceived complexity of magnified parts of natural scenes. These findings fit with the idea that fractal-like, recursive complexity is an important visual cue underlying the restorative potential of natural and built environments.     

The lawn as a social and cultural phenomenon in Sweden

Lawns have a significant influence on the cityscape as one of the essential elements of green spaces and an important part of people’s everyday lives. Most people in the Western world view lawns as a compulsory element of the urban landscape, almost an icon, without questioning their social, symbolic, ecological or aesthetic values. This research is a part of the conceptual framework and methodological approaches that are being used in an ongoing transdisciplinary collaboration project to study lawns in Sweden as a social and ecological phenomenon.The overall aim of this study was to investigate social and cultural perceptions of lawns, as well as motives behind decisions about the establishment and management of lawns in Sweden. Two multi-family housing typologies, the ‘Million Programme’ and ‘People’s Homes’, were examined due to their dominance in Swedish cities. We also studied how an alternative vision of conventional lawns can be applied and accepted by urban residents. We estimated lawn cover in multi-family housing areas and links to people’s perception and use of lawns. Questionnaires, semi-structured interviews and observational studies were used (N = 300). Our results showed that people like lawns even if they do not always directly use them. Lawns cover the most significant amount of outdoor spaces in all multi-family residential areas and accompany people everywhere from the house to the schoolyard or park. The total lawn cover in the study areas was 27.8%. Lawns were particularly valued as important places for different outdoor activities (playing, resting, picnicking, walking, socialising) and enjoying the green colour. However people do not want to use a vast monotonous lawn, but a variety of spaces that provide good conditions for different senses (sound, smell, touch and sight) and activities. Alternative lawns were also appreciated by many citizens, politicians, planners and managers. The implementation of new types of lawns requires special planning and design solutions adjusted for each particular neighbourhood.     

Relationships between students’ demographic characteristics,perceived naturalness and patterns of use associated with campus green space,and self-rated restoration and health

There is increasing awareness of the benefits of campus green space in promoting student's health. However, information on how campus green spaces benefit students’ health is insufficient or limited to guide the planning or management process. As a result, the present study collected 897 valid responses to examine the differences in campus green space usage patterns among students with varying individual characteristics and to assess the interrelationships between students’ socio-demographic characteristics, perceived naturalness, patterns of use, and self-rated restoration and health using a structural equation model. The findings indicated that there were gender disparities in the presence of companions and frequency of use of campus green space, as well as discipline differences in companion presence. Additionally, gender, age, and discipline had distinct associations with perceived naturalness, patterns of use and self-rated restoration and health. Perceived naturalness positively contribute to patterns of use and self-rated restoration and health, while the frequency of use positively contributed to self-rated restoration and health. Moreover, students’ perceived health can be improved in part through the mediating effect of the self-rated restoration. The study findings demonstrated how campus green spaces benefit students’ health and provided valuable information for campus green space managers and designers. Therefore, we propose that presenting diverse natural elements, manipulating them in natural forms, providing feelings of wildness or friendliness, and eatablishing vast, high-quality, and diverse green spaces to promote students’ health.     

Between Big Ideas and Daily Realities – The roles and perspectives of Danish municipal green space managers on public involvement in green space maintenance

Public involvement (PI) in green space maintenance activities has increased during the past decades. The various (potential) benefits of PI have been recognised. Denmark, however, has no established tradition for such activities, despite its well-established tradition of volunteering. Local authorities have traditionally been the sovereign entity within public green space management, reflecting a hierarchical mode of governance. Yet, an increased call for new forms of local democracy and for new governance modes has resulted in growing attention for PI practices. Hence more knowledge is needed, for example on ongoing changes in governance arrangements regarding municipal green space.This paper thus aims to gain insight into (a) current governance arrangements with respect to municipal green space maintenance as well as temporal changes in these and (b) the consequences of the former for governmental actors and municipal managers in particular. An analytical framework based on governance theory and the Policy Arrangement Approach was developed to meet these aims. Data was collected by means of selected semi-structured interviews with green space managers from ten Danish municipalities.Findings show that green space PI occurred in all ten municipalities and thus that governance arrangements had started to include non-government actors, signalling a possible shift to co-governance from more common hierarchical governance modes. Green space managers felt themselves often ill-prepared for new governance arrangements and PI, e.g. in terms of lack of training and expertise. They based themselves strongly on their own experiences and preferences. More responsibility had been allocated to citizens, but often only to a select group of those who were already organised and/or had good connections with local authorities (i.e. closed co-governance). Green space managers listed a number of benefits of PI, generally adhering to the prevailing discourse of more co-governance. However, they also noted a number of challenges, including discrepancies between current maintenance practices and more PI. These, as well as a wider understanding of changing governance arrangements in green space management and maintenance, need to be addressed in future research.     

Nature orientation and opportunity: Who values and who has opportunity for satisfactory green spaces in proximity to their place of residence

Urban green spaces (UGS) provide important contributions to people. Yet, UGS planning requires better understanding of by whom and where such contributions are being valued or missed. Based on a mixed-methods online survey and choice experiment with residents of Wellington in Aotearoa New Zealand, we analyse how much and why residents value UGS and their benefits when deciding where to live and how socio-economic and spatial factors might impact nature orientation and opportunity for satisfactory local UGS. We find that local UGS are an important residential choice criteria for the majority of respondents, especially in the context of Wellington’s intensification plans. However, we show that socio-economic and spatial factors significantly impact whether someone values and is satisfied with UGS in proximity to their place of residence. Our findings call for careful scoping of a city’s population and spatial structure when planning for equitable UGS provision. More holistic approaches to green space planning are needed to address contextualities and the complex interdependencies between nature orientation and opportunity and to plan for green space distributions that provide opportunities now and help shaping nature orientation for future generations.