由电子废物处理和回收引起的土壤污染: 特别关注中国

This short review deals with soils as an important source of the greenhouse gas N2O. The production and consumption of N2O in soils mainly involve biotic processes: the anaerobic process of denitrification and the aerobic process of nitrification. The factors that significantly influence agricultural N2O emissions mainly concern the agricultural practices (N application rate, crop type, fertilizer type) and soil conditions (soil moisture, soil organic C content, soil pH and texture). Large variability of N2O fluxes is known to occur both at different spatial and temporal scales. Currently new techniques could help to improve the capture of the spatial variability. Continuous measurement systems with automatic chambers could also help to capture temporal variability and consequently to improve quantification of N2O emissions by soils. Some attempts for mitigating soil N2O emissions, either by modifying agricultural practices or by managing soil microbial functioning taking into account the origin of the soil N2O emission variability, are reviewed.     

盐碱地土壤：氧化亚氮和二氧化碳排放的潜在来源？

Increasing salt-affected agricultural land due to low precipitation,high surface evaporation,irrigation with saline water,and poor cultural practices has triggered the interest to understand the influence of salt on nitrous oxide(N_2O) and carbon dioxide(CO_2)emissions from soil.Three soils with varying electrical conductivity of saturated paste extract(EC_e)(0.44-7.20 dS m~(-1)) and sodium adsorption ratio of saturated paste extract(SARe)(1.0-27.7),two saline-sodic soils(S2 and S3) and a non-saline,non-sodic soil(S1),were incubated at moisture levels of 40%,60%,and 80%water-filled pore space(WFPS) for 30 d,with or without nitrogen(N)fertilizer addition(urea at 525 μg g~(-1) soil).Evolving CO_2 and N2 O were estimated by analyzing the collected gas samples during the incubation period.Across all moisture and N levels,the cumulative N_2O emissions increased significantly by 39.8%and 42.4%in S2 and S3,respectively,compared to S1.The cumulative CO_2 emission from the three soils did not differ significantly as a result of the complex interactions of salinity and sodicity.Moisture had no significant effect on N_2O emissions,but cumulative CO_2 emissions increased significantly with an increase in moisture.Addition of N significantly increased cumulative N_2O and CO_2 emissions.These showed that saline-sodic soils can be a significant contributor of N_2O to the environment compared to non-saline,non-sodic soils.The application of N fertilizer,irrigation,and precipitation may potentially increase greenhouse gas(N2O and CO_2) releases from saline-sodic soils.     

猪粪沼液施用对稻麦轮作系统土壤氧化亚氮排放的影响

以典型的猪粪尿发酵沼液为对象,探讨了沼液施入量和管理方式对以中国东部稻麦轮作农田系统土壤N2O排放规律和排放量的影响。研究结果表明,与化学氮肥相比,沼液施用未影响稻麦轮作系统土壤N2O排放的季节变化规律,但影响其排放量的大小。稻季100%施用沼液的处理（N100%DPS）其累积排放量为0.71kg·hm-（22008年）和1.38kg·hm-（22009年）,显著高于100%施用化肥的处理（N100%Ure）a,即0.68kg·hm-2和1.06kg·hm-2。麦季N100%DPS处理N2O的累积排放量分别为6.56kg·hm-（22008年）和5.05kg·hm-2（2009年）,与N100%Urea处理（2008年：5.89kg·hm-2;2009年：3.93kg·hm-2）无显著差异,但均显著高于稻季各处理。随着沼液替代化学肥料用量的降低,稻田N2O排放量呈降低趋势,而沼液一次性施入和分次施入对稻田N2O排放的季节动态和累积排放量均无显著影响;但沼液不同的管理方式对麦季累积N2O排放量更为复杂。稻、麦两季N100%DPS处理中N2O排放系数（f）均最大,分别达到0.3%和1.6%,但沼液分次施入和一次性施入的处理间f值均无显著差异。     

不同施肥处理对稻田氧化亚氮排放的影响

2004年在湖南省望城县黄金乡长期肥料监测站对不同施肥处理稻田中N2O排放通量进行了连续观测,发现不同施肥处理稻田中N2O排放季节变化具有一致的规律:生长中前期N2O排放量较小,晒田及之后排放量较大。各施肥处理N2O排放的差异早晚稻不同,早稻各处理间差异不显著,NPK处理排放量最大,为1.48kg.hm2;晚稻各处理差异极显著(p<0.01),NPKS处理排放量最大,为1.40kg.hm2;同是有机肥和化肥配施,早稻NKM处理N2O排放大于NPKS处理,两者差异不显著,而晚稻NPKS处理N2O排放远大于NKM处理,二者差异显著(p<0.05)。稻田水分状况也影响N2O排放,淹水期N2O排放较少,落干期N2O排放较多。     

基于Century模型和1:500 000土壤数据库的华东旱地土壤有机碳动态模拟

Changes in soil organic carbon (SOC) in agricultural soils influence soil quality and greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. Dry farmland covers more than 70% of the whole cropland area in China and plays an important role in mitigating carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. In this study, 4109 dry farmland soil polygons were extracted using spatial overlay analysis of the soil layer (1:500000) and the land use layer (1:500000) to support Century model simulations of SOC dynamics for dry farmland in Anhui Province, East China from 1980 to 2008. Considering two field-validation sites, the Century model performed relatively well in modeling SOC dynamics for dry farmland in the province. The simulated results showed that the area-weighted mean soil organic carbon density (SOCD) of dry farmland increased from 18.77 Mg C ha1 in 1980 to 23.99 Mg C ha1 in 2008 with an average sequestration rate of 0.18 Mg C ha1 year?1. Approximately 94.9% of the total dry farmland area sequestered carbon while 5.1% had carbon lost. Over the past 29 years, the net SOC gain in dry farmland soils of the province was 19.37 Tg, with an average sequestration rate of 0.67 Tg C year1. Augmentation of SOC was primarily due to increased consumption of nitrogen fertilizer and farmyard manure. Moreover, SOC dynamics were highly differentiated among dry farmland soil groups. The integration of the Century model with a fine-scale soil database approach could be conveniently utilized as a tool for the accurate simulation of SOC dynamics at the regional scale.     

追肥时间对小麦拔节-成熟期氧化亚氮排放的影响

2007～2008年采用3种追肥时间(雨前追肥、雨时追肥和雨后追肥)进行田间试验,观测小麦拔节-成熟期N2O排放,以探讨追肥时间对麦季N2O排放的影响。结果表明,与雨前追肥和雨时追肥相比,雨后追肥小麦拔节-成熟期N2O排放量分别减少37%～67%和22%～46%。各处理小麦产量无显著差异(p>0.05)。土壤水分含量是影响小麦拔节-成熟期N2O排放的关键因素。雨后趁墒追肥能显著减少小麦拔节-成熟期N2O排放且不影响小麦产量,是较为合理的追肥方式。     

丛枝菌根真菌调控土壤氧化亚氮排放的机制

氮素是陆地生态系统初级生产力的主要限制因子,自Haber-Bosch反应以来,氮肥的生产和施用极大地提高了粮食产量.然而过量施用氮肥导致氮肥利用率低,并造成了严重的环境污染,包括氮沉降、硝态氮淋洗以及N2O排放等.微生物直接参与土壤氮素循环,固氮微生物、氨氧化和反硝化微生物分别在土壤固氮、铵态氮转化和硝态氮转化过程中起...     

减氮及硝化抑制剂对菜地氧化亚氮排放的影响

利用静态暗箱—气相色谱法,周年监测集约化菜地四种蔬菜种植过程中N2O的排放和蔬菜产量变化,探究减氮(640、960 kg hm-2 a-1)以及施用硝化抑制剂氯甲基吡啶(CP)对菜地N2O排放的影响。结果表明,与常规施氮(Nn)处理相比,减量施氮(Nr)在不显著降低产量的情况下平均降低菜地N2O排放27.1%;与仅施用尿素的处理相比,在减量和常规施氮水平的基础上添加硝化抑制剂又分别能降低菜地N2O排放总量29.4%、26.0%,降低N2O排放系数60.9%、42.4%,而对蔬菜产量没有显著影响,因此显著降低菜地单位产量N2O排放量32.1%、30.3%,以减氮结合CP(CP-Nr)处理减排效果最佳。因此,减氮结合CP应用于集约化蔬菜生产是一种有效的菜地减排农业措施。     

不同施肥处理稻田甲烷和氧化亚氮排放特征

采用静态箱－气相色谱法对长期不同施肥处理(NPKS、CK、NPK和NKM)的稻田CH₄和N₂O排放进行了观测。结果表明,稻田CH₄和N₂O排放季节变化规律明显不同,二者排放通量季节变化呈显著负相关(p<0.01)。与单施化肥和CK相比,施用有机肥显著促进CH₄排放,排放量最高的NPKS处理早晚稻田排放量分别是：526.68 kg/hm²和1072.92 kg/hm²。对于N₂O排放,早稻田各处理间差异不显著,NPK处理排放量最大,为1.48 kg/hm²;晚稻田各处理差异极显著(p<0.01),NPKS处理排放量最大,为1.40 kg/hm²。晚稻田CH₄排放通量和10 cm土层温度及土壤pH值相关极显著(p<0.01),并与二者存在显著的指数关系。没发现N₂O排放通量与温度及pH值间存在显著相关。稻田CH₄和N₂O排放受多种因素影响,但对全球变暖的贡献率CH₄远大于N₂O。NPKS处理的增温潜势最大,NPK处理的最小。     

不同施氮水平对稻麦轮作农田氧化亚氮排放的影响

利用江苏常熟田间随机区组试验,以密闭箱法采集气样,气相色谱分析N2O浓度,对稻麦轮作制下不同施氮水平的土壤N2O排放进行了观测,探讨了不同施氮水平对稻麦轮作农田氧化亚氮排放的影响。结果表明,土壤N2O排放量受施氮量的影响,稻季和麦季N2O排放量都随旌氮量的增加而增加;稻季N2O排放量最大峰值出现在烤田复水期间,其排放量大小主要受基肥和分蘖肥施用量的影响,并随施氮量的增加而增大;麦季最大峰值出现在气温回暖的第二次追肥后,排放量的最大峰值也随施氮量的增加而增大;稻麦轮作土壤N2O排放以麦季的排放为主,麦季N2O累积排放量在轮作周期中占三分之二。     

Nitrous oxide emissions from agricultural soils at low temperatures: a laboratory microcosm study

We studied in laboratory microcosms (intact soil cores) N₂O and CO₂ emissions from four different agricultural soil types (organic soil, clay, silt and loam) at low temperatures with or without freezing-thawing events. When the temperature of the frozen soil cores was increased stepwise from −8 °C the N₂O emissions began to increase at −0.5 °C, and peaked at −0.1 °C in the organic, clay and silt soils, and at +1.6 °C in the loam soils. However, a stepwise decrease in soil temperature from +15 °C also induced an increase in the N₂O emissions close to the 0 °C. These emissions peaked between −0.4 and +2.5 °C depending on the soil type and water content. However, the emission maxima were from 2 to 14.3% of those encountered in the experiments where frozen soils were thawed. Our results show that in addition to the well-documented thawing peak, soils also can have a maximum in their N₂O emission near 0 °C when soil temperature decrease. These emissions, however, are less than those emitted from thawing soils. The correlations between the N₂O and CO₂ emissions were weak. Our results suggest that N₂O is produced in soils down to a temperature of −6 °C.     

Nitrous oxide production and consumption in serially diluted soil suspensions as related to in situ N2O emission in submerged soils

A simple method for characterizing soil microbial community composition relevant to N₂O production and consumption was proposed. Ten-fold series soil dilution was prepared. Nitrate or N₂O was provided as the sole electron acceptor. Nitrous oxide concentration in the headspace gas across the serially diluted soil suspensions was measured against controls. Results showed that the patterns of N₂O production and consumption across the soil suspensions provided useful information on the microbial community composition relevant to N₂O production and consumption in these soils. An independent method, to that proposed here, was also employed to characterize denitrifier community compositions of the same soils. Data indicated that information on the soil microbial community composition characterized by both methods were compatible or mutually supporting and apparently related to in situ N₂O emissions. Soil samples from manure (applied with animal manure plus chemical fertilizer) plots had higher denitrification rates than the samples from normal fertilizer (applied with chemical fertilizer only) plots. It was concluded that functional characteristics of soil microbial communities relevant to N₂O production and consumption could be characterized at ecological levels and may potentially affect N₂O emissions.     

Elevated carbon dioxide stimulates nitrous oxide emission in agricultural soils: A global meta-analysis

Elevated carbon dioxide (CO₂)(e CO₂) has been shown to affect the nitrous oxide (N₂O) emission from terrestrial ecosystems by altering the interaction of plants,soils,and microorganisms.However,the impact of e CO₂ on the N₂O emission from agricultural soils remains poorly understood.This meta-analysis summarizes the effect of e CO₂ on N₂O emission in agricultural ecosystems and soil physiochemical and biological characteristics using 50 publications selected.The e CO₂ effect values,which equal to the percentage changes of N₂O emission under e CO₂,were calculated based on the natural logarithm of the response ratio to e CO₂.We found that e CO₂ significantly increased N₂O emission (by 44%),which varied depending on experimental conditions,agricultural practices,and soil properties.In addition,e CO₂ significantly increased soil water-filled pore space (by 6%),dissolved organic carbon content (by11%),and nitrate nitrogen content (by 13%),but significantly reduced soil p H (by 1%).Moreover,e CO₂ significantly increased soil microbial biomass carbon(by 28%) and soil microbial biomass nitrogen (by 7%) contents.Additionally,e CO₂ significantly increased the abundances of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria(AOB) amo A (by 21%),nir K (by 15%),and nir S (by 15%),but did not affect the abundances of ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) amo A and nos Z.Our findings indicate that e CO₂ substantially stimulates N₂O emission in agroecosystems and highlight that optimization of nitrogen management and agronomic options might suppress this stimulation and aid in reducing greenhouse effect.     

华北平原玉米季优化管理的密集型农业系统下一氧化二氮和甲烷通量研究

Addressing concerns about mitigating greenhouse gas （GHG） emissions while maintaining high grain yield requires improved management practices that achieve sustainable intensification of cereal production systems. In the North China Plain, a field experiment was conducted to measure nitrous oxide （N2O） and methane （CH4） fluxes during the maize （Zea mays L.） season under various agricultural management regimes including conventional treatment （CONT） with high N fertilizer application at a rate of 300 kg N ha-1 and overuse of groundwater by flood irrigation, optimal fertilization 1 treatment （OPTIT）, optimal fertilization 2 treatment （OPT2T）, and controlled-release urea treatment （CRUT） with reduced N fertilizer application and irrigation, and a control （CK） with no N fertilizer. In contrast to CONT, balanced N fertilization treatments （OPT1T, OPT2T, and CRUT） and CK demonstrated a significant drop in cumulative N20 emission （1.70 v.s. 0.43-1.07 kg N ha-l）, indicating that balanced N fertilization substantially reduced N20 emission. The vMues of the N20 emission factor were 0.42%, 0.29%, 0.32%, and 0.27% for CONT, OPTIT, OPT2T, and CRUT, respectively. Global warming potentials, which were predominantly determined by N20 emission, were estimated to be 188 kg CO2-eq ha-1 for CK and 419-765 kg CO2-eq ha-1 for the N fertilization treatments. Global warming potential intensity calculated by considering maize yield was significantly lower for OPT1T, OPT2T, CRUT, and CK than for CONT. Therefore, OPTIT, OPT2T, and CRUT were recommended as promising management practices for sustaining maize yield and reducing GHG emissions in the North China Plain.     

Nitrous oxide and methane fluxes during the growing season from cultivated peat soils,peaty marl and gyttja clay under different cropping systems

Drainage of peatlands affects the fluxes of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Organic soils used for agriculture contribute a large proportion of anthropogenic GHG emissions, and on-farm mitigation options are important. This field study investigated whether choice of a cropping system can be used to mitigate emissions of N₂O and influence CH₄ fluxes from cultivated organic and carbon-rich soils during the growing season. Ten different sites in southern Sweden representing peat soils, peaty marl and gyttja clay, with a range of different soil properties, were used for on-site measurements of N₂O and CH₄ fluxes. The fluxes during the growing season from soils under two different crops grown in the same field and same environmental conditions were monitored. Crop intensities varied from grasslands to intensive potato cultivation. The results showed no difference in median seasonal N₂O emissions between the two crops compared. Median seasonal emissions ranged from 0 to 919?µg?N₂O?m^?2?h^?1, with peaks on individual sampling occasions of up to 3317?µg?N₂O?m^?2?h^?1. Nitrous oxide emissions differed widely between sites, indicating that soil properties are a regulating factor. However, pH was the only soil factor that correlated with N₂O emissions (negative exponential correlation). The type of crop grown on the soil did not influence CH₄ fluxes. Median seasonal CH₄ flux from the different sites ranged from uptake of 36?µg CH₄?m^?2?h^?1 to release of 4.5?µg?CH₄?m^?2?h^?1. From our results, it was concluded that farmers cannot mitigate N₂O emissions during the growing season or influence CH₄ fluxes by changing the cropping system in the field.     

Fluxes and production pathways of nitrous oxide in different types of tropical forest soils in Thailand

Nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions from the soil surface of five different forest types in Thailand were measured using the closed chamber method. Soil samples were also taken to study the N₂O production pathways. The monthly average emissions (±SD, n?=?12) of N₂O from dry evergreen forest (DEF), hill evergreen forest (HEF), moist evergreen forest (MEF), mixed deciduous forest (MDF) and acacia reforestation (ARF) were 13.0?±?8.2, 5.7?±?7.1, 1.2?±?12.1, 7.3?±?8.5 and 16.7?±?9.2?µg N m^?2 h^?1, respectively. Large seasonal variations in fluxes were observed. Emission was relatively higher during the wet season than during the dry season, indicating that soil moisture and denitrification were probably the main controlling factors. Net N₂O uptake was also observed occasionally. Laboratory studies were conducted to further investigate the influence of moisture and the N₂O production pathways. Production rates at 30% water holding capacity (WHC) were 3.9?±?0.2, 0.5?±?0.06 and 0.87?±?0.01?ng N₂O-nitrogen (N) g-dw^?1day^?1 in DEF, HEF and MEF respectively. At 60% WHC, N₂O production rates in DEF, HEF and MEF soils increased by factors of 68, 9 and 502, respectively. Denitrification was found to be the main N₂O production pathway in these soils except in MEF.     

Effects of various nitrogen fertilizers on emission of nitrous oxide from soils

Summary Field studies of the effects of different N fertilizers on emission of nitrous oxide (N20) from three Iowa soils showed that the N₂O emissions induced by application of 180 kg ha^–1 fertilizer N as anhydrous ammonia greatly exceeded those induced by application of the same amount of fertilizer N as aqueous ammonia or urea. On average, the emission of N₂O-N induced by anhydrous ammonia was more than 13 times that induced by aqueous ammonia or urea and represented 1.2% of the anhydrous ammonia N applied. Experiments with one soil showed that the N₂O emission induced by anhydrous ammonia was more than 17 times that induced by the same amount of N as calcium nitrate. These findings confirm indications from previous work that anhydrous ammonia has a much greater effect on emission of N₂O from soils than do other commonly used N fertilizers and merits special attention in research relating to the potential adverse climatic effect of N fertilization of soils.Laboratory studies of the effect of different amounts of NH₄OH on emission of N₂O from Webster soil showed that the emission of N₂O-N induced by addition of 100 g NH₄OH-N g^–1 soil represented only 0.18% of the N applied, whereas the emissions induced by additions of 500 and 1 000 g NH4OH-N g^–1 soil represented 1.15% and 1.19%, respectively, of the N applied. This suggests that the exceptionally large emissions of N₂O induced by anhydrous ammonia fertilization are due, at least in part, to the fact that the customary method of applying this fertilizer by injection into soil produces highly alkaline soil zones of high ammonium-N concentration that do not occur when urea or aqueous ammonia fertilizers are broadcast and incorporated into soil.     

Nitrous oxide emissions associated with nitrogen fixation by grain legumes

Nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions and biological nitrogen (N₂) fixation by grain legumes are two major processes of N transformation in agroecosystems. However, the relationship between these two processes is not well understood. The objective of this study was to quantify N₂O emissions associated with N₂ fixation by grain legumes under controlled conditions. The denitrifying capability of two Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar viciae strains, 99A1 and RGP2, was tested in pure culture in the presence of nitrate and in symbiosis with lentil (Lens esculenta Moench) and pea (Pisum sativum L.), respectively, in sterile Leonard jars. Lentil and pea, either inoculated or N-fertilized, were grown in soil boxes under controlled conditions. Profile N₂O concentration and surface N₂O emissions were measured from soil–crop systems, and were compared with that of a cereal – spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L. ac. Barrie). Results indicated that: 1) neither R. leguminosarum strain, 99A1 or RGP2 was capable of denitrification in pure culture, nor in symbiosis with lentil and pea in sterile Leonard jars, suggesting that introducing these Rhizobium into soils through rhizobial inoculation onto lentil and pea will not increase denitrification or N₂O emissions; 2) soil-emitted N₂O from well-nodulated lentil and pea crops grown under controlled conditions was not significantly different than that from the check treatments, indicating that biological N₂ fixation by lentil and pea was not a direct source of N₂O emissions.     

Degradation of PCP in soils

In laboratory experiments, the degradation of PCP in soil with regard to the relationship to soil properties was studied under upland and flooded conditions using gas-chromatographic techniques. The degradation products and their behavior were elucidated by using 10 diCferent soils collected from rice fields and adjacent upland fields and one sample of a subsoil from the forest. The results are as follows:

1) The degradation of PCP in soils was faster under flooded conditions than upland conditions.

2) The degradation under flooded conditiont was more rapid in soils collected from rice fields than in those from adjacent upland fields, Tbe reverse was true under upland conditions.

3) The degradation rate was highly correlated with the organic matter content of the soil. Almost 100% of the PCP remained in the subsoil sample even after 50 days of incubation. The rate was slightly correlated with the clay mineral composition, free iron content, phosphate absorption coefficient and C.E.C., but hardly at all with texture, clay content, degree of base saturation, soil pH and available phosphorus content.

4) As the degradation products of PCP, 3 tetrachlorophenols, 4 or 5 trichlorophenols and PCP methyl ether were detected, PCP methyl elher and 2, 3, 4, 5-tetrachlorophenol were the major products, but the amount of the latter varied greatly during the course of incubation.