Effects of legal regulations on land use change: 2/B applications in Turkish forest law

For the countries struggling with climate change, sustainable forestry is one of the greatest challenges and is difficult to define, implement, and to measure. According to the scientific community’s consensus on climate change, forests are one of the major sinks and sustainable forest management (SFM) is needed to prevent deforestation and its negative effects on natural ecosystems. Despite being a party to many international treaties/agreements related to land use policies (LUP) that are promoting SFM to protect and develop forest resources, the 2/B application in Turkish forest legislation has been causing deforestation in Turkey since the 1970s.

In this study, 2/B applications–political and legal process–causing deforestation by land use change (LUC) are investigated by carrying out a legal analysis. About 500.000 ha of forests have been lost due to the 2/B application and as a LUP directly affects SFM, carbon sequestration capacities (CSC), and therefore, climate change. To exemplify this pre and post-LUC change and effect, the amount of carbon that was prevented from being absorbed as 176,7 tonnes/ha on average in a given forest area for the year 2016. There is a vital need to address the negative effects of ill-defined forest legislation to achieve SFM.     

Preserve and produce: experience in implementing payments for environmental services in two indigenous communities in the Northern and Southern ranges of Oaxaca,Mexico

Payments for environmental services (PES) are conservation instruments in place in various Latin American countries. They are generally undergoing adjustment and implementation changes, and they are widely implemented in indigenous communities. This article aims to suggest a relevant group of context variables in PES implementation. Characterizing the local context of two indigenous communities located in Oaxaca, Mexico, and analyzing the relationship between the local context and PES implementation and outcomes perceptions.

The work is based on 75 surveys administered to beneficiary families of the instrument in the two localities. The results suggest three conclusions:

The pertinence of the nine focal variables: “Forest cover, Opportunity costs, Livelihoods, Trust and cooperation, Motivations toward conservation, Management practices, Internal organization, Land tenure and Rules for the management and use” to the characterization of the local context. And the relevance of the new focal variable “Presence and experience with Civil Society Organizations”.

The coincidence between the contextual variables and the determinants of the success of conservation instruments.

Finally, the incidence of “Trust and cooperation” and “Internal organization” in the implementation of equitable PES schemes. And the importance of linking sustainable production to PES conservation schemes.     

An integrated approach to assess carbon credit from improved forest management

Fossil fuel consumption in recent decades has caused the rise of CO₂ concentration in the atmosphere, with negative consequences on the environment and human health. This study develops a methodological framework to quantify carbon credits from carbon-oriented forest management and evaluates the economic sustainability of their sale. Application of the framework to two forest compartments with long-lasting active management in the Western Italian Alps showed the feasibility of the methodology and provided insights on its replication in other contexts. Particularly, the Carbon-oriented scenario led to a reduction of both the extracted wood volume (10% and 6.5% CASE1 and CASE2, respectively) and Net Present Value (32% and 29%), leading to a carbon credit price of 19.6 € MgCO_2eq^?1? and 44.1 € MgCO_2eq^?1 to counteract these losses.

This work allows us to highlight the factors needed to design and evaluate alternative forest management options while considering the consequences of climate change. Moreover, the hypothesized scenarios include an economic remuneration of the positive externalities provided by sustainable forest management.

Finally, the proposed workflow entails undeniable environmental benefits while contrasting climate change but still looks undesirable with respect to the traditional timber-oriented management in compartments where high-quality wood products can be obtained.     

Impact of thermal modification on bioresistance of North American wood species,Pinus banksiana,Populus tremuloides,and Betula papyrifera,against wood-rotting basidiomycete fungi

In this study, the decay resistance of untreated and thermally modified jack pine (Pinus Banksiana), aspen (Populus tremuloides), and white birch (Betula Papyrifera) was evaluated. Wood specimens were exposed to laboratory decay resistance tests using the wood-rot fungi, Trametes. versicolor, Poria placenta, and Gloephyllum trabeum for 2–12 weeks of incubation.

The results indicated that, T. versicolor fungus was virulent against all the three untreated woods, B. papyrifera (73.9% weight loss), P. tremuloides (57.1% weight loss), and P. banksiana (43.5% weight loss). P. placenta fungus affected B. papyrifera (52.4% weight loss), P. banksiana (52.3% weight loss), and P. tremuloides (36.7% weight loss). G. trabeum fungus was virulent against P. banksiana (41.53% weight loss), but less active against B. papyrifera (11.6% weight loss) and P. tremuloides (21.9% weight loss).

It was found that the weight losses due to T. versicolor fungus activity were reduced for P. banksiana (1.5% weight loss) thermally modified at 210 °C, B. papyrifera (27.9% weight loss) at 215 °C, and P. tremuloides (9% weight loss) at 220 °C compared to the weight losses of their untreated counterparts. These correspond to 96.5%, 62.2% and 84.2% of decrease in weight loss, respectively. Similar results were obtained with G. trabeum fungus. On the contrary, thermal modification on the deterioration of P. banksiana (39.1% weight loss) by P. Placenta was affected less resulting in only 25.2% weight loss relative to untreated wood.     

The complexity and consequences of the policy implementation dealing with sustainable ideas

This article portrays a case study in Yogyakarta, Indonesia which looks into the dynamic relationship between communities and the effectiveness of the implementation of community-based forest management (CBFM) policies and its programme, and particularly on how local institutions deal with the shifting dynamics of these policies. As there is currently an absence of research in this area, this research therefore focuses on how the local community implements policy, builds relationships with other stakeholders, and strengthens local community institutions.

CBFM has been implemented in Yogyakarta since 1995 and during that time, the central government has been changing the policy for five times. At this point, this article argues that CBFM should rely on local institutions and deal with the shifting dynamics of policies. The terms of institutions can be considered to include formal institutions, such as Constitution, government laws, charters, decrees and statutes, and informal institutions, such as code of conducts, customs, local knowledge and social expectations. Furthermore, in selected communities, it is clear that the local communities can apply their informal institutions as an important component and value of traditional systems and significantly involved in forest management sustainability and establish the formal institutions simultaneously.     

Pre-harvest Curing: Effects on Skin Adhesion,Chemical Composition and Shelf-life of Sweetpotato Roots under Tropical Conditions

Excoriation (skinning injury) is a serious post-harvest problem for sweetpotato roots. In industrialized countries, sweetpotatoes are exposed to post-harvest curing to facilitate skin toughening and wound healing. However, in developing regions, such a practice is barely undertaken. Pre-harvest curing (PHC), where sweetpotatoes are subjected to defoliation before harvest, is a potential alternative to post-harvest curing. A field trial was conducted in southern Ethiopia. Roots underwent PHC treatment for 3, 7, 10, and 14 days, with 0 days as a control sample. Skin adhesion and chemical composition (ash, crude fibre, crude protein, dry matter, and starch) of the parenchyma and the periderm were measured. Storage testing at ambient conditions for 30 days was conducted.

Skin adhesion among all the treatments was significantly increased. The maximum skin adhesion was observed after 14 days (358.92 mN.m); however after 7 days of PHC, no significant change occurred. Root dry matter and ash content remained unaffected by the treatments. An increase in periderm crude fibre was observed for treatment samples, indicating lignification. Parenchyma crude protein concentration demonstrated a sudden drop in value from the control to 3 days of PHC (5.19 to 2.32%). For successive durations, crude protein started to increase from 3 days, demonstrating an active protein metabolism. Starch, the most important constituent affecting palatability and processing of sweetpotato, was not affected by PHC. Roots subjected to PHC for 10 and 14 days presented a potential for enhancing shelf life by having a significantly lower weight loss after 30 days of storage.     

Possible Impacts of Climatic Warming on Trees and Forests in the United Kingdom: a Review

There is growing evidence and concern that increasing levelsof greenhouse gases in the atmosphere will increase global temperatures.Temperatures in the UK may increase by 3C± 1.5C overthe next 70 years The tree crop is sensitive to such large andrapid climatic change because of its longevity. This paper reviews(1) changes that might occur in the forest environment, includingsoil, following climatic warming; (2) past and future long-termchanges in the species composition of UK forest; (3) possiblepositive and negative effects.of climatic warming on the growthand yield of UK forests; and (4) the vulnerability of foreststo any change in the frequency of extreme events.     

Development of Quercus robur advance regeneration following canopy reduction in an oak woodland

Observations to follow the development of 2-year-old oak seedlingstook place over a 6-year period at a fenced site within a maturestand of oak in southern England. Bramble and bracken were abundant,but the cover of other species was low. Although seedlings doubledin height, only 13 per cent survived and few were taller thaneither bramble or bracken. The initial number of seedlings wasinversely related to both canopy cover and distance to the nearestparent tree. The final number of seedlings could be predictedfrom the initial percentage covers of bramble and bracken, andeither the overstorey canopy cover or the initial number ofseedlings. The average annual rate of seedling mortality, whichwas 25–50 per cent, was significantly influenced by thevegetation present. Grass was positively related to survivalwhereas there was an inverse relationship with both brambleand bracken cover. Models estimated 80 per cent annual seedlingsurvival at 25 per cent bramble cover but only 50 per cent at60 per cent cover. Although grasses can be competitive species,results indicate that oak seedling establishment may be betterin areas with a ground flora comprising grass.     

Improvement of mechanical properties of thermally modified hardwood through melamine treatment

Specimens of beech, ash, lime and poplar were thermally modified (T) and treated with an aqueous solution of melamine (M) resin to investigate the mechanical changes after combined (double) modification (TM). Density, solution uptake, weight percent gain, bulking and equilibrium moisture content were recorded to ensure proper treatment. Samples for Brinell hardness and three-point bending were cured at 120°C under dry conditions. The WPGs of the two treatment groups M and TM were similar, but bulking of TM specimens was negative. This might indicate an incomplete penetration into the thermally modified cell wall in combination with a potential leaching of soluble hemicellulose components by the alkaline impregnation solution. The decreased hardness of heat-treated wood was substantially increased by melamine treatment (combined modification). Both modifications and their combination slightly increased the modulus of elasticity. The modulus of rupture was increased after melamine treatment, decreased after thermal modification and combined modification. The work in bending was severely reduced for all treatments. Melamine treatment of thermally modified wood was carried out successfully and some mechanical properties were improved. Double-modified wood with increased modulus of rupture (MOR) and extraordinary surface hardness would be suitable for non-structural outdoor applications such as decking and cladding.

Abbreviations: ANOVA: Analysis of variance; EMC: Equilibrium moisture content; EMC_R: Reduced (corrected) equilibrium moisture content; IB: Impact bending strength; M: Melamine treated; MOE: Modulus of elasticity; MOR: Modulus of rupture; MUF: melamine-urea-formaldehyde resin; OD: Oven dry density; R: Untreated references; RH: relative humidity; SC: Solid content; SU: Solution uptake; T: Thermally modified; TM: Thermally modified and melamine treated (double modification); WB: Work in bending; WPG: Weight percent gain     

Biomass carbon sinks in Japanese forests: 1966-2012

The role of forests in absorbing atmospheric carbon has beenrecognized under the Kyoto Protocol, which allows signatorycountries to use forests as a mitigation option. Although severalstudies have estimated carbon stock changes in Japanese forests,most only estimate changes up to 1995 or ignore carbon stockchanges in natural forests. This study is the first attemptto estimate carbon stock changes in Japanese forests from 1966to 2012, to coincide with the final year of the Kyoto Protocol'sfirst commitment period. Forest area and growing stock datawere analysed. Then, two models for predicting the change inforest area and growing stock were developed. Results showedthat most natural forest loss resulted from conversion to plantationforest. The total above-ground and below-ground carbon stockin Japanese forests has been estimated to have increased from1114.8 TgC in 1966 to 2076.0 TgC in 2012, representing an increaseof 20.9 TgC year^-1 over the same period. During the first commitmentperiod of the Kyoto Protocol (2008–2012), annual carbonsinks were estimated at 20.1 TgC, of which 76.9 per cent weresequestered in plantation forests. Of the 20.1 TgC year^-1, eligiblecarbon sinks are estimated at 10.2 TgC or 78.7 per cent of themaximum or capped amount as allowed under the Marrakesh Accord.Although further effort is needed so that the capped amountof 13 TgC year^-1 could be achieved, this study suggests thatcarbon sinks through forest management could be used to offsetindustrial carbon emissions.     

Average Rate of Interest in Sustained Yield Forestry Based on Historical Danish Material

The rate of interest to be used for calculations in forestryunder Danish conditions (3 per cent) has beeen determined asthe long-term effective first mortgage rate (4 per cent) lessthe long-term average inflation (1 per cent) and the averageannual relative rise in prices of forest products ( per cent). A comparison shows that agriculture pays a real net return ofabout 3 per cent (about 3 per cent for larger farms). A comparisonwith the profit on shares seems to show that, according to Danishinvestigations, these yield a real profit of about 4 per cent. The rate of interest in forestry-a very safe type of investment-whichwe have estimated to be about 3 per cent of the market value,seems on the whole to fit well into the general real returnlevel in this country. Similarly the average real interest cost of second mortgageloans has been investigated and proved to be about 4 per cent.For forest owners having bank loans secured by third mortgage,the real interest cost of these is presumably 5 per cent ormore, but varies from person to person. A figure shows real interest costs at various degrees of indebtedness. The majority of Danish forests have a rate of interest of about3 per cent, or sometimes less (this applies to some unencumberedestates). So far, only few larger forests have a rate of interestof about 4 per cent. A rate of 5 per cent or more is mainlyseen in very small forests.     

Comparative study of chlorophyll content in diploid and tetraploid black wattle (Acacia mearnsii)

The effects of the number of chromosome sets on chlorophyllcontent in diploid and tetraploid black wattle were assessedthrough chlorophyll absorbance. Seedlings of 8 months of age,1-year-old trees in polybags and 2-year-old field material wereselected for this investigation. Three families per ploidy levelcomprising of 10 half-sibs per family were used in the analysis.An analysis of variance revealed significant differences (P< 0.05) in chlorophyll absorbance between diploid and tetraploidmaterials ( = 0.375 and = 0.653, respectively). Significantdifferences (P < 0.05) between treatments (seedling, baggedmaterial and field material) within each ploidy level were recorded,where chlorophyll absorbance increased from diploid bagged trees( = 0.343) to seedlings ( = 0.375) to field trees ( = 0.408). Similar significant increases were recordedfor the tetraploid seedlings ( = 0.629) to bagged trees ( = 0.644) to field trees ( = 0.686). Significant differences (P < 0.05) were also recordedbetween genetic lines within both ploidy levels. However, whencomparing families within each ploidy level, with respect totreatment differences, in most cases, two of the three familiesshowed no significant differences (P > 0.05). Within eachfamily, significant differences (P < 0.05) were recordedbetween each of the three treatments tested, with the fieldmaterial consistently having significantly (P < 0.05) greateramounts of chlorophyll.