Behavioural and heart rate responses to velvet antler removal in red deer

Heart rate and behaviour during and following velvet antler removal were monitored in yearling red deer stags to determine the extent to which this procedure was perceived by the deer to be aversive. Nine stags normally kept at pasture were habituated over 5 weeks to the following daily handling procedure. Each deer was fitted with a harness containing a heart rate monitor. It was then allowed to run through a fixed course in a deer yard, restrained for 40 s in a mechanical deer crush, and then confined for 3.5 h with the remainder of the group of stags in an indoor pen containing food and water. In Week 6, the deer were subjected to either restraint for 6 minutes (the control treatment) or removal of one velvet antler under local anaesthesia. Each velvet antler was removed on separate occasions, either on Days 1 and 2 (five deer) or Days 3 and 4 (four deer). The control treatment was applied to all deer when velvet antler was not being removed, and on Day 5. Heart rate and behaviour (time taken to enter the treatment area, and number of struggles made during restraint) were measured before and during treatment, and post-treatment activities were recorded at 0, 1 and 3 h (indoors), and at 6 and 9 h (at pasture). Heart rate was higher during the second velvet antler removal treatment than during the first, but lower during the second control treatment than the first (P<0.05). During velvet antler removal, stags struggled more, and after the treatment flicked their ears, shook their heads, and groomed themselves more than control stags (P<0.05). Stags whose velvet antler had been removed spent less time eating than control stags, and spent progressively more time sitting during the 3.5 h of confinement (P<0.05). However, during the paddock observation at 9 h post-treatment, stags which had had their velvet antler removed grazed more than control stags (P<0.05). The increase in heart rate over the two velvet antler removal treatments and the greater amount of struggling during velvet antler removal indicated that it was more aversive than the control treatment. Post-treatment differences in behaviour may have been due to pain following velvet antler removal.     

Routes and doses of lignocaine hydrochloride for analgesia of the velvet antler of stags

AIM: To evaluate the effectiveness of various routes of administration and doses of local anaesthetic to provide analgesia of the velvet antler of young stags. METHODS: In study 1, in which an electrical stimulus was used, 64 l-year-old male red and red X wapiti deer with velvet antler lo-30 cm long, were randomly allocated to one of ten treatments with four treatments/animal, and 23 or 24 antlers/treatment. Treatments delivered included three control groups, three local anaesthetic (2% lignocaine HCL) doses delivered by ring block (5, 10 or 15 ml per pedicle), and a high or low regional block with or without an auriculopalpebral nerve block (5 ml per site). An electrical stimulus was applied before and 1,2,4 and 8 minutes after local anaesthetic treatments and to controls, at an increasing voltage until a response was observed. The voltage and animal responses were recorded. In Study 2 the same seven local anaesthetic treatments (16-I 8 antlers/treatment) were evaluated using 58 of the stags from Study 1 when antlers were ready for removal, but a saw cut was used as the test stimulus. A test cut was applied to the antler I,2 and 4 minutes after application of local anaesthetic. If no response was observed, the antler was removed at that time. RESULTS: In Study 1, major dose and treatment effects were significantly different (p < 0.05) with the outcome variable being whether or not the deer responded. No stags given the high dose ring block responded to electrical stimulation 1 minute after treatment, one responded at 2 minutes, and none responded at 4 or 8 minutes. At least one animal responded after all other treatments at all time intervals. More deer responded after the low regional block than the high regional block, and there was a lower response rate when the auriculopalpebral nerves were anaesthetised. In Study 2, no deer responded 2 minutes after the medium dose ring block treatment. Three of 18 stags receiving the high dose ring block still responded after 2 minutes, and one responded after 4 minutes. Responses occurred to all other treatments at each time, with some deer requiring further administration of local anaesthetic before antler removal, even with the four minute waiting period. CONCLUSION: Ring blocks produced more consistent analgesia of the velvet antler than regional nerve blocks. The high dose ring block produced analgesia faster and more effectively than lower doses, and the regional nerve blocks were more effective when the auriculopalpebral nerve was blocked.     

Evaluation of techniques for lignocaine hydrochloride analgesia of the velvet antler of adult stags

AIM: To evaluate the effectiveness of various routes of administration and doses of local anaesthetic (LA) to provide analgesia of the velvet antler of adult stags. METHODS: In Experiment 1, antlers from 50 red deer stags, >or=2-years-old were allocated to 1 of 4 treatment groups (n = 25 antlers/group) to receive injections with 2% lignocaine hydrochloride as follows: High-dose (1 ml/cm pedicle circumference) or Low-dose ring-block (0.4 ml/cm pedicle circumference) or; High-site or Low-site regional nerve block (5 ml per site, both of which included the auriculopalpebral nerve). An electrical stimulus was applied before application of LA and then each min for up to 4 min after LA injection. If no response was observed, analgesia was tested with a saw cut. If no response occurred, the antler was cut at that time. If the animal responded, a further wait time was applied until 4 min had elapsed, at which time observations ceased. In Experiment 2, 10 primary and 50 re-growth antlers were given a High-dose ring-block and tested with a saw cut after 1 min (n = 30) or 2 min (n = 30). If no response occurred, the antler was removed. If a response occurred, further 1-min wait periods were applied. RESULTS: In the High-dose ring-block and High-site nerve-block groups, 24/25 and 21/25 antlers were removed without response by 2 min, compared with 20/25 and 15/25 antlers in the Low-dose ring-block and Low-site nerve-block groups, respectively. The High-dose ring-block provided more effective analgesia after 3 min than the Low-dose ring-block, as assessed by the number of stags that did not respond to the electrical stimulus (p = 0.008), or subsequent antler removal (p = 0.050). The numbers of antlers removed without response after 1 or 2 min were greater using the High-site nerve-block than the Low-site nerve-block (p = 0.002 and p = 0.037, respectively). In all but the High-dose ring-block group, at least 1 stag required further LA after 4 min, before antler could be humanely removed. In Experiment 2, stags reacted to a saw-cut test on 6/30 antlers, 1 min after a High-dose ring-block, compared with 1/30 antlers after 2 min (p = 0.051). CONCLUSION: The High-dose ring-block produced the most effective and rapid analgesia. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: A High-dose ring-block with a 2-min wait period should be the preferred method for achieving local analgesia for velvet antler removal.     

Evaluation of techniques for lignocaine hydrochloride analgesia of the velvet antler of adult stags

Aim: To evaluate the effectiveness of various routes of administration and doses of local anaesthetic (LA) to provide analgesia of the velvet antler of adult stags.

Methods: In Experiment 1, antlers from 50 red deer stags, ≥2-years-old were allocated to 1 of 4 treatment groups (n = 25 antlers/group) to receive injections with 2% lignocaine hydrochloride as follows: High-dose (1 ml/cm pedicle circumference) or Low-dose ring-block (0.4 ml/cm pedicle circumference) or; High-site or Low-site regional nerve block (5 ml per site, both of which included the auriculopalpebral nerve). An electrical stimulus was applied before application of LA and then each min for up to 4 min after LA injection. If no response was observed, analgesia was tested with a saw cut. If no response occurred, the antler was cut at that time. If the animal responded, a further wait time was applied until 4 min had elapsed, at which time observations ceased. In Experiment 2, 10 primary and 50 re-growth antlers were given a High-dose ring-block and tested with a saw cut after 1 min (n = 30) or 2 min (n = 30). If no response occurred, the antler was removed. If a response occurred, further 1-min wait periods were applied.

Results: In the High-dose ring-block and High-site nerve-block groups, 24/25 and 21/25 antlers were removed without response by 2 min, compared with 20/25 and 15/25 antlers in the Low-dose ring-block and Low-site nerve-block groups, respectively. The High-dose ring-block provided more effective analgesia after 3 min than the Low-dose ringblock, as assessed by the number of stags that did not respond to the electrical stimulus (p = 0.008), or subsequent antler removal (p = 0.050). The numbers of antlers removed without response after 1 or 2 min were greater using the High-site nerve-block than the Low-site nerve-block (p = 0.002 and p = 0.037, respectively). In all but the High-dose ring-block group, at least 1 stag required further LA after 4 min, before antler could be humanely removed. In Experiment 2, stags reacted to a saw-cut test on 6/30 antlers, 1 min after a High-dose ring-block, compared with 1/30 antlers after 2 min (p = 0.051).

Conclusion: The High-dose ring-block produced the most effective and rapid analgesia.

Clinical relevance: A High-dose ring-block with a 2-min wait period should be the preferred method for achieving local analgesia for velvet antler removal.     

Transmission of Brucella ovis from rams to red deer stags

AIM: To determine whether B. ovis will transmit from infected rams to non-infected red deer stags (Cervus elaphus) grazing together in the same paddock. METHODS: Six rams artificially infected with B. ovis were grazed with six non-infected 14-month-old red deer stags for a four and a half month period from March 4 to July 20, 1999. Stags were blood sampled at one- to six-weekly intervals to test for B. ovis antibodies using a complement fixation test. Stags that seroconverted were semen sampled to test for B. ovis infection by bacteriological culture. RESULTS: Between day 92 and day 124 of grazing together (June 4 and July 6), sera from five of the six stags became positive in the B. ovis complement fixation test. B. ovis was cultured from semen samples from four of the seropositive stags. CONCLUSIONS: Brucella ovis can be transmitted from infected rams to non-infected stags grazing in the same paddock, suggesting that B. ovis infection in farmed deer in New Zealand initially came from infected rams. Whether transmission occurs from direct contact between rams or stags, or indirectly by environmental contamination needs to be established.     

马鹿茸IGF-1基因5''端克隆及生物信息学分析

对鹿茸IGF-15’端调控序列进行生物信息学分析。提取鲜马鹿茸顶部组织基因组DNA，设计简并引物，利用PCR获得马鹿茸IGF-15’端调控序列及部分外显子（命名为CCS1074），用DNAMAN软件进行CCS1074与其他种属IGF-1基因的序列同源性分析；使用在线分析程序预测CCS1074的潜在转录因子结合位点并比较分析鹿茸区别于其他种属IGF-1的特有潜在转录因子，进行TATAbox、CpG岛、候选启动子区段及信号肽预测。结果获得了包含部分外显子的鹿茸IGF-1基因5’端（Genbank Accession No．DQ234266）；序列同源性分析表明鹿茸IGF-1与牛、羊IGF-1基因5’端存在差异；生物信息学分析表明：在CCS1074180～310base处存在CpG岛，在142～192、238—288、874～924、1359～1409base处可能存在启动子，存在253个潜在的转录因子结合位点；比较发现，ZF5F／ZF5．01和HAND／HAND2-E12．01是鹿茸IGF-1区别于牛、羊、人、猪、家鼠、斑马鱼IGF-1启动子区域的潜在转录因子，这些潜在转录因子与鹿茸生长的关系尚待进一步试验证实；综合分析表明CCS1074〈1～1580base为鹿茸IGF-15’端区域，1581—1966base为外显子1，1903—1966base为信号肽，1967～〉2087base为内含子1。     

梅花鹿鹿茸异位生长研究

为了揭示鹿茸发生机理,阐明生茸区骨膜在鹿茸发生中的作用,选择4只1周岁雄性梅花鹿,在鹿茸发生前,通过外科手术将一侧完整的生茸区骨膜摘除并移植到额骨上。结果,摘除骨膜的生茸区没有发生鹿茸,而在被移植的额骨部位上发生了鹿茸且生长发育正常。证明了生茸区骨膜是鹿茸发生的组织基础,同时为通过异位生茸提高鹿茸产量开辟了新的途径。     

梅花鹿鹿茸异位生长的试验

为了揭示鹿茸发生机理,阐明生茸区骨膜在鹿茸发生中的作用,选择4只1周岁雄性梅花鹿,在鹿茸发生前,通过外科手术将一侧完整的生茸区骨膜摘除并移植到额骨上。结果,摘除骨膜的生茸区没有发生鹿茸,而在被移植的额骨部位上发生了鹿茸且生长发育正常。证明了生茸区骨膜是鹿茸发生的组织基础,同时为通过异位生茸提高鹿茸产量开辟了新的途径。     

Persistence, serodiagnosis and effects on semen characteristics of artificial Brucella ovis infection in red deer stags

AIMS: To investigate the persistence of infection and serum antibody titres after infection of red deer (Cervus elaphus) stags with Brucella ovis, and compare these with those of rams. To assess the effects of recent and chronic infection on semen characteristics of stags. METHODS: Fourteen stags and eight rams were artificially infected with B. ovis by intravenous inoculation. Semen and blood samples were collected at approximately monthly intervals for 649 days. Semen samples were subjected to bacterial culture, and sera were tested for B. ovis antibodies using a complement fixation test (CFT) and an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). At the end of the study, animals were slaughtered and reproductive organs subjected to bacterial culture. During the first and second breeding seasons, three and five semen samples, respectively, were evaluated from each stag for sperm motility and morphology. RESULTS: Twelve of 14 (86%) stags and 6/8 (75%) rams developed a patent B. ovis infection and shed the organism in semen. All six infected rams continued to shed B. ovis in semen throughout the 649-day study period, and at slaughter B. ovis was isolated from the reproductive tract and urinary bladder. In contrast, 10/12 (83%) infected stags stopped shedding B. ovis in semen 103-342 days after inoculation, and the organism could not be isolated from their reproductive tracts at slaughter. The remaining two infected stags shed B. ovis in semen throughout the study period and the organism was isolated from their reproductive tracts at slaughter. All inoculated animals initially developed serum antibody titres detectable using the B. ovis CFT and ELISA. For infected stags, the diagnostic sensitivity of these tests was 100% for the first 166 days, but decreased to 50-90% after this. The diagnostic sensitivity for the infected rams was 100% throughout the study period. Infection in stags resulted in variable effects on semen characteristics. Eight of 12 (67%) infected stags had a mean sperm motility of < 50%, and < 60% mean normal sperm in the first year of infection. Seven of these stags had resolved the infection by the following breeding season, and there was a significant improvement in sperm motility and morphology. CONCLUSIONS: Stags are as susceptible as rams to experimental B. ovis infection. However, the majority of infected stags resolved the infection within a year, whereas rams remained infected for at least 649 days (22 months). Serology, using CFT and ELISA, was effective at detecting infection during the first 166 days in both species, but after this time was less effective at detecting infection in stags than in rams. Infection with B. ovis had variable but generally deleterious effects on the semen characteristics of stags, which resolved following resolution of the infection. Differences in the characteristics of the disease in stags compared with rams mean that different control methods are warranted for the two species. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Most stags infected with B. ovis are likely to resolve the infection within a year, and semen characteristics return to levels acceptable for breeding. Serology is useful for detection of infection in the early stages of the disease, but once disease has been present in the herd for some time false-negative reactions are likely to occur in individual stags.     

Pathology of Brucella ovis infection in red deer stags (Cervus elaphus)

Abstract

AIM: To describe the pathology of the reproductive tract of red deer stags with active Brucella ovis infection and in stags in which B. ovis infection had resolved.

METHODS: Twenty-three red deer stags of varying history were slaughtered and their epididymides and accessory sex glands examined grossly and by histopathology. At the time of slaughter five of the stags had an active B. ovis infection of 24–55 days duration following exposure to infected rams, 10 stags had been experimentally infected with B. ovis by intravenous inoculation 649 days previously and had developed an active infection but the bacterial infection had resolved at least 308 days prior to slaughter, and eight stags had not been exposed to B. ovis at any time.

RESULTS: Of the five stags with an active infection, one had gross enlargement of the epididymides that could be detected by scrotal palpation. Histological lesions in all five stags included mild to severe, predominantly non-suppurative epididymitis, vesiculitis, prostatitis and ampullitis, with neutrophil exudation in associated glandular ducts. Additional lesions in the epididymides were spermatic granulomas and epithelial hyperplasia with intra-epithelial cyst formation. Of the 10 stags in which the bacterial infection had resolved, two had gross enlargement of the epididymides. The histological lesions were similar to those in stags with active infection but were generally milder, with increased periductal scar tissue in the epididymides. The lesions seen in stags resembled those seen in rams with B. ovis infection but they were usually less florid and had fewer plasma cells. No gross abnormalities or histopathological lesions were detected in the non-infected stags.

CONCLUSIONS: Only a small percentage of red deer stags infected with B. ovis develop lesions of epididymitis that can be detected by scrotal palpation. Gross and histological lesions of the genital tract of stags associated with B. ovis infection are similar to the lesions seen in rams. Lesions in stags persist for >300 days after the bacterial infection has resolved.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Brucella ovis infection should be considered when there are gross lesions of epididymitis or histological evidence of inflammation in the epididymides or accessory sex glands of red deer stags. Retrospective diagnosis of B. ovis in stags could be achieved by histological examination of the reproductive organs.     

Seasonal variation in venison quality of mature, farmed red deer stags in New Zealand.

Two studies involving 20 red deer (Cervus elaphus) stags were conducted to determine the effects of season on venison quality. In each study, five sexually mature red deer stags were slaughtered immediately preceding the rut (autumn) and five were slaughtered after the rut. Stags slaughtered postrut had lower carcass weights (25 to 30%) than those slaughtered prerut. Average bodywall thickness measurements above the 12th rib (an indicator of fat thickness) were approximately 31 mm prerut compared with 3 to 7 mm postrut. Individual muscles and retail cuts (which included subcutaneous and intermuscular fat) were heavier in prerut carcasses. There were significant decreases in intramuscular fat in both the longissimus muscle and the semimembranosus muscle. Postrut longissimus muscle steaks appeared brighter and(or) fresher than the other groups; color acceptability was negatively correlated (P less than .05) with fat content. Prerut streaks from both muscles were more tender than postrut steaks from those muscles. Overall desirability and tenderness were highly correlated (r = .94 and .82 for longissimus muscle and semimembranosus muscle, respectively).     

Effects of Brucella ovis infection on semen characteristics of 16-month-old red deer stags

AIM: To determine the effects of Brucella ovis infection on semen characteristics of 16-month-old red deer stags (Cervus elaphus). METHODS: At monthly intervals during March, April and May, semen was collected using electro-ejaculation from 9 yearling red deer stags that had been artificially infected with B. ovis 3 months previously. In March, semen was also collected from 6 non-infected stags from the same peer group for comparison. Semen was evaluated for gross appearance, percentage of sperm showing forward motility, sperm morphology and sperm density/ml of semen, and the presence of white blood cells was determined. In addition, at the time of semen collection, the epididymes of each stag were palpated and lesions recorded. RESULTS: Grossly visible purulent material was present in semen from 6/9 infected stags and the percentage of sperm showing forward motility did not exceed 20% in any of these samples. Increased numbers of white blood cells and cellular debris were evident in semen from 8/9 infected stags. Compared with non-infected stags, sperm motility in semen from infected stags was significantly reduced (p<0.05). There were no differences in percentage of morphologically normal sperm between groups, but infected stags had more detached sperm heads present in semen than non-infected stags (p<0.05). Only 2 of the infected stags had lesions of epididymitis evident on scrotal palpation. CONCLUSIONS: B. ovis infection is likely to have a detrimental effect on stag semen quality. While there was variation between individual animals, overall sperm motility was decreased and semen from infected stags had increased numbers of white blood cells and detached sperm heads. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The fertility of breeding stags may be reduced if they are infected with B. ovis and this possibility should be considered when investigating reproductive problems of deer.     

Copper deficiency and effects of copper supplementation in a herd of red deer (Cervus elaphus)

Copper (Cu) deficiency was diagnosed in a Norwegian red deer (Cervus elaphus) herd subsequent to deaths due to emaciation in late autumn 1999. The animals had free access to salt licks containing 3000 mg Cu/kg. An evaluation of the herd revealed poor calf growth rate, low weights of adult hinds, dull and light-coloured hair coats and cases of diarrhoea. The herd was subsequently monitored throughout a three-year period of Cu-supplementation. The monitoring regimen included clinical observation, copper serum examination, weighing, faecal parasitological examination, and reproduction control by ultrasound. During the period January 2000 to May 2001, the animals were treated with Cu oxid capsules (1 g CuO/10 kg liveweight) at 2–4 months intervals, with the exception of March to September 2000. The animals were fed continuously with Cu-enriched concentrates containing 300 mg Cu/kg, at a rate of 1/2 kg per head and day, from May 2001 to January 2003. Following both copper supplementation regimens adequate serum Cu concentrations were measured, and markedly improved body weights, coat quality and reproductive results were observed, except for the period from March to September 2000 when no treatment was given. The results showed that in a deer herd, with a diet low in Cu, supplementation with CuO capsules had to be given at intervals of a few months to maintain adequate serum Cu levels. Free access to Cu-containing salt licks did not meet the animals'' Cu demand. Good and stable results were achieved by the daily feeding of Cu-enriched concentrates.     

Behaviour of red deer following antler removal with two methods of analgesia

This study examined the effect of two different methods of analgesia on behavioural responses to velvet antler removal in red deer. Specifically, behaviour during the first 7 h after antler removal using compression (C, latex band around the pedicle) or lignocaine (L, 2% lignocaine hydrochloride) analgesia was compared with controls (R, restraint only).

The frequencies of ear flicking, tongue flicking, yawning, head shaking, grooming and scratching were all higher following antler removal (C + L) than restraint only (P < 0.05). The only overall difference between analgesia methods was for head rubbing which was higher after antler removal with L than with C (P = 0.05). There were differences between compression and lignocaine in the hourly pattern of behavioural changes following antler removal. On an hourly basis, ear flicking was higher in C than L at hour two (P = 0.006) then higher in L than C at hours six and seven (P < 0.01). Tongue flicking was higher in C than L at hour one (P < 0.05). Grooming and yawning were higher in L than C at hour one (P < 0.05) and head rubbing was higher in L than C at hour six (P < 0.01). Agonistic behaviour was higher in R at hour three (P < 0.05). There were no differences in scratching, standing, walking, stepping, running, eating and lying between groups, however; all showed a time trend (P < 0.01). Eating peaked at 3 h, lying showed the main increase throughout the period, although there was also an increase in running in the last 2 h. Panting, standing, stepping and walking all decreased with time.

In summary, behavioural indications of pain or irritation increased following antler removal with analgesia and had mostly disappeared by 7 h. The hourly pattern of behavioural changes following antler removal indicate differences in the time course of pain or irritation between methods of analgesia. Overall behavioural differences between animals receiving either compression or lignocaine analgesia provide little evidence for a difference in post-surgical welfare between these two methods.     

Bodyweight and serum copper concentrations of farmed red deer stags following oral copper oxide wire administration

A diagnosis of secondary copper deficiency was established on a deer farm with a peat soil type, on the basis of confirmed enzootic ataxia in hinds, liver and serum copper concentrations and pasture and soil element analyses. Seventy-four weaner stags were selected for a trial to investigate a growth response to copper supplementation.

Thirty-seven red and red x wapiti type stags were treated with 4g copper oxide wire particles at four months of age (April). A further 8g copper oxide wire was given in June. Thirty-seven untreated animals acted as controls. Body weights were measured on five occasions, from April 24 to November 26. Serum copper analyses were undertaken on ten deer prior to commencement of the trial, and on seven treated and eight control deer in June, July and October.

Serum copper concentrations ranged from 2.0 to 19.3μmol/l prior to the trial. In June, July and October serum copper ranged from 0.1–6.7, 0.6–5.0, and 1.3–6.3μmol/l respectively, in control deer. In treated deer concentrations ranged from 7.2–14.7, 5.2–10.8, and 6.9–13.7µmoM in June, July and October respectively. The difference between mean copper concentration at each post-treatment sampling date was highly significant, (P<0.001). At the conclusion of the trial (November 26) the treated deer averaged 3.lkg heavier than controls, but this difference was not statistically significant.

In view of these results and the variation in growth response trials in other species, further investigation of the effects of copper on the growth of young deer is warranted.     

Effects of vaginal Brucella ovis infection of red deer hinds on reproductive performance, and venereal transmission to stags

AIMS: To investigate the effects of vaginal Brucella ovis infection on the reproductive performance of red deer (Cervus elaphus) hinds. To determine whether stags may become infected with B. ovis by venereal transmission from mating infected hinds. METHODS: Thirty mixed-age red deer hinds serologically negative for B. ovis antibodies were synchronised for oestrus on 22 March 2000. B. ovis was inoculated into the vagina of each hind at oestrus and again, 18 days later. At oestrus, hinds were randomly allocated to six groups, each joined with a 16 month-old red deer stag seronegative for B. ovis, for 55 days. Hinds were blood sampled and scanned for pregnancy using rectal ultrasonography at monthly intervals. Six pregnant and four non-pregnant hinds were slaughtered pre-calving and three hinds were slaughtered post-calving. Reproductive tracts and foetuses were examined grossly, histologically and microbiologically. Calves were identified and blood sampled within 3 days of birth. Hinds and calves were blood sampled in February and May 2001 and vaginal swabs were collected from hinds for B. ovis culture. Blood was collected from stags, 5 and 19 days after mating and semen was collected for B. ovis culture. The 17 remaining hinds were mated in 2001 to two mixed-age wapiti (Cervus canadensis) stags. Both stags were blood sampled after mating. Sera were tested in a B. ovis complement fixation test (CFT) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). RESULTS: All 30 hinds developed B. ovis antibody levels, measurable using either the CFT or ELISA, but these did not remain elevated. There was no evidence of infection, either by gross pathology, histopathology or microbiological culture in the ten hinds or six foetuses slaughtered pre-calving. All remaining 20 hinds produced normal calves, 15 of which survived until weaning. Three hinds experienced dystocia and gave birth to dead calves and two calves died within 4 days of birth. One hind which had dystocia was euthanased. Samples from this hind and from 3/5 dead calves showed no evidence of B. ovis infection. B. ovis was cultured from the vagina of 1/19 hinds 48 weeks after inoculation, at which time B. ovis CFT and ELISA results for this hind were negative. Most calves had B. ovis serum antibodies at 1-3 days of age but levels were negligible when sampled at 10-15 weeks of age. Foetuses and dead calves were all seronegative. Three of the five red deer stags used for mating became infected with B. ovis. The two wapiti stags used to mate the remaining 17 hinds the following year remained seronegative. CONCLUSIONS: B. ovis is unlikely to have significant detrimental effects on the reproductive performance of red deer hinds. Venereal transmission via the vagina of hinds is a possible route of transmission between stags. It is possible that survival of the organism in the vagina of some hinds could create difficulties in disease control programmes. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: B. ovis infection of hinds at the time of mating is unlikely to cause significant reproductive losses. Venereal transmission of B. ovis between stags via the hinds may occur when groups of hinds are joined with more than one stag.     

Bodyweight and serum copper concentrations of farmed red deer stags following oral copper oxide wire administration

A diagnosis of secondary copper deficiency was established on a deer farm with a peat soil type, on the basis of confirmed enzootic ataxia in hinds, liver and serum copper concentrations and pasture and soil element analyses. Seventy-four weaner stags were selected for a trial to investigate a growth response to copper supplementation. Thirty-seven red and red x wapiti type stags were treated with 4g copper oxide wire particles at four months of age (April). A further 8g copper oxide wire was given in June. Thirty-seven untreated animals acted as controls. Bodyweights were measured on five occasions, from April 24 to November 26. Serum copper analyses were undertaken on ten deer prior to commencement of the trial, and on seven treated and eight control deer in June, July and October. Serum copper concentrations ranged from 2.0 to 19.3 micromol/l prior to the trial. In June, July and October serum copper ranged from 0.1-6.7, 0.6-5.0, and 1.3-6.3 micromol/l respectively, in control deer. In treated deer concentrations ranged from 7.2-14.7, 5.2-10.8, and 6.9-13.7 micromol/l in June, July and October respectively. The difference between mean copper concentration at each post-treatment sampling date was highly significant, (P<0.001). At the conclusion of the trial (November 26) the treated deer averaged 3.1kg heavier than controls, but this difference was not statistically significant. In view of these results and the variation in growth response trials in other species, further investigation of the effects of copper on the growth of young deer is warranted.