State‐level capital and investment: Refinements and update

This paper presents updated estimates for state‐level private capital and investment for 1950–2015. We improve upon the procedure of Garofalo and Yamarik (2002) and Yamarik (2013) using quantity measures to apportion the mining capital stock and a geometric pattern of depreciation to derive investment data. We provide a brief overview of our new estimates, discuss their reliability, and present the website where the data are posted and updated annually.     

MicroRNA‐based molecular markers: a novel PCR‐based genotyping technique in Brassica species

DNA‐based molecular markers play a significant role in gene mapping, genetic diversity analysis, germplasm evaluation and molecular marker‐assisted selection. A combination of desirable marker characteristics such as abundant polymorphism, good stability, ease of production and high efficiency is difficult to achieve when utilizing traditional molecular marker systems. MicroRNAs are a type of endogenous non‐coding RNAs prevalent in the genomes of many organisms. The high conservation of miRNA and pre‐miRNA sequences provides an opportunity to develop a novel molecular marker type. We downloaded 82 miRNA sequences from the Brassica miRBase database and designed 46 single miRNA‐based primers which could be randomly combined to generate primer pairs. A proportion of these primer pairs were validated for transferability and polymorphism using DNA from 16 varieties of six Brassica species. The percentage of polymorphic primer pairs were 28.1%, and the average polymorphism information content (PIC) value for the 34 primer pairs was 0.43. Good transferability was verified across species. These results indicate that miRNA‐based markers provide a novel genotyping technique with low costs, high efficiency, stability and good transferability.     

Detecting village‐level regional development differences: A GIS and HLM method

To respond to the problems that the previous research mainly targeted the poverty at larger scale and ignored individual effect or contextual effect during exploring poverty contributing factors, we attempt to use spatial cluster analysis and multilevel linear regression model to target the poverty at village level from the perspective of spatial poverty, so as to identify where the poor villages are, and why they are so poor, thereby targeting poverty interventions. Specially, we adopt four types of spatial cluster indices to detect the spatial aggregation distribution of villages, and design HLM model to examine the poverty contributing factors from both village level and county level. The case study from Wuling contiguous destitute area show that: (1) The overall distribution shows a spatial pattern of large scattered but small concentration, scatters‐polar core‐axis‐clump coexisted. (2) Poverty contributing factors at village level from high to low are: per cultivated area, safe drinking water access ratio, terrain type, suffered frequency of natural disasters, road access ratio, and distance from the nearest town’s bazaar. The contribution degree of county‐level factors to the villages’ poverty from high to low are: second gross enrollment ratio, per capita GDP. (3) 45.1% of the difference among the villages’ poverty degrees comes from the development differences among poverty‐stricken villages themselves, and 54.9% from that among counties they belong to. Contributing factors at village level account for 61.4% of the variation of village‐level independent variables, and factors at county level contributed to 65.3% of the variation of county‐level independent variables.     

Creating community‐based indicators of gender equity: A methodology

It appears that an almost unquestioned development pathway for achieving gender equity and women's empowerment has taken centre stage in mainstream development. This pathway focuses on economic outcomes that are assumed to be achieved by increasing women's access to material things, including cash income, loans, physical assets, and to markets. Gender equity indicators, which measure progress towards these outcomes, cannot escape reinforcing them. We argue that far from being neutral, indicators are embedded in political and ideological agendas that serve as guides to the appropriate conduct of those whose performance or behaviour is being measured. Drawing on participatory feminist, diverse economies and strengths based approaches, we outline a research methodology for developing community‐based indicators that recognises women's and men's participation and relationships in all spheres of life, including the ‘non‐economic’. If indicators are grounded in local meanings and realities, we propose that community members can use them to identify aspirational goals for gender equity, and measure progress towards these goals.     

Development of a molecular marker for self‐compatible S4′ haplotype in sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.) using high‐resolution melting

Sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.) has stylar gametophytic self‐incompatibility, which is controlled by the multi‐allelic S‐locus and encompasses the highly polymorphic genes for the S‐ribonuclease (S‐RNase) and S‐haplotype‐specific F‐box (SFB), which are female and male determinants, respectively. The self‐compatible mutant SFB4′ corresponds to an allele variant of SFB4 and presents a frameshift mutation. Even though male‐determinant molecular markers can discriminate between SFB4 and SFB4′ alleles, the methods required are laborious, time‐consuming and expensive, and not suitable for massive analysis and integration into breeding programmes. Our aim was to develop molecular markers for the evaluation of self‐compatibility alleles in sweet cherry, that could be used as a high‐throughput screening strategy to identify SFB4 and SFB4′ alleles, based on a marker for male determinacy. Our results were consistent using primers flanking the mutation responsible for the SFB4′ allele. We designed a specific molecular marker and confirmed it in sweet cherry commercial varieties. This new molecular marker is feasible for self‐compatibility alleles in the male determinant in sweet cherry‐assisted breeding programs.     

Resource‐based view of city quality: Scales development and validation

As the urban world population grows steadily, cities have become the main habitat for human beings. Against this backdrop, city quality or the level of development of the city's habitat that ensures the satisfaction of objective and subjective human needs become a matter of growing interest and concern for academics, policy makers, and citizens. Building on a resource‐based view of city quality, the aim of this paper is twofold. First, it proposes and validates scales for six city sub‐habitats: political, economic, social, natural, artificial, and technological. Second, it tests a model and the underlying hypothesis about the ranking of those sub‐habitats and of the perceived controversy regarding decision making upon them. For those purposes, a survey of 768 city inhabitants was conducted in Portugal to measure city quality and their sub‐habitats. Both the predicted ranking of importance of the sub‐habitats and the perceived ranking of controversy were empirically validated. The results constitute a novel and important contribution to understand city quality and its sub‐habitats, whose conceptual power relies on hierarchized factors linked to citizens’ happiness and to the level of controversy of the solutions.     

SFB‐based S‐haplotyping of apricot (Prunus armeniaca) with DHPLC

Most cultivars that belong to the Rosaceae are self‐incompatible and depend on cross‐pollination. The pollen donor and pollen recipient have to flower synchronously and must be genetically compatible. Genetic compatibility is governed by the S‐locus, which holds the S‐RNase and S‐haplotype‐specific F‐Box (SFB) genes. Thus, the S‐genotype of cultivars is an important feature and is characterized molecularly by the S‐RNase and SFB alleles which are distinctive for each S‐haplotype. Here, we report the usage of DNA chromatography (denaturing high‐performance liquid chromatography – DHPLC) for identifying the S‐genotypes of European apricots on the basis of their SFB alleles. DHPLC is amenable to high‐throughput automation, and therefore is valuable for breeding and for high‐quality plant typing in the nursery.     

Introducing host‐plant resistance to anthracnose in Kyrgyz common bean through inoculation‐based and marker‐aided selection

Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is one of the most important legume crops for human consumption. However, its grain yield can be reduced by up to 90% by the seedborne disease, anthracnose. Fungicide treatment is costly and time‐consuming. The introduction of host plant resistance against this disease appears, therefore, to be crucial for enhancing the productivity of this crop in Kyrgyzstan. The use of DNA‐based markers in backcrossing programmes may help speed up the breeding for resistance. In this study, we used a combination of inoculation tests and a DNA marker (SCAreoli marker) to track the transfer of host‐plant resistance (Co‐2 gene) from two donor cultivars, ‘Vaillant’ and ‘Flagrano’, to susceptible Kyrgyz cultivars ‘Ryabaya’, ‘Kytayanka’ and ‘Lopatka’, which are widely grown in the country. The segregating offspring were evaluated to test the reliability of the SCAreoli marker as selection aid for host‐plant resistance to anthracnose. Our study showed that a co‐dominant DNA marker can successfully be used in backcross breeding to distinguish segregating material in different market classes of common bean.     

Rapid and convenient gel‐free screening of SCAR markers in wheat using SYBR green‐based melt‐profiling

Sequence characterized amplified region (SCAR) markers that are highly desirable in crop breeding for marker‐assisted selection (MAS) are routinely analysed by gel‐based methods that are low‐throughput, time‐consuming and laborious. In this study, we showed a rapid and convenient method for analysis of SCAR markers in a gel‐free manner. Seven SCAR markers, linked to rust resistance genes (Sr24, Sr26 and Sr31) and seed quality traits (Pina, Pinb and Glu‐D1) in wheat (Triticum aestivum), were amplified on a real‐time PCR machine using custom reaction mixture. Subsequently, melting curve analysis was performed, to assess the specificity of amplicons. Using the amplicon‐specific melt‐profiles, the presence/absence of SCAR markers was analysed in fifteen genotypes and five F₂ populations. Unlike the fluorescence‐based in‐tube detection methods, the present method used the amplicon‐specific melt‐profiles to evaluate the status of the SCAR markers, thus eliminating the need for gel‐based analysis. Results also showed feasibility of multiplex analysis of two markers with well‐separated melting profiles. Overall, the approach is a rapid, convenient and cost‐effective method for high‐throughput screening of SCAR markers.     

Genome‐wide association studies in elite varieties of German winter barley using single‐marker and haplotype‐based methods

Genome‐wide association studies (GWAS) became a widely used method to map qualitative and quantitative traits in plants. We compared existing single‐marker and haplotype‐based methods for GWAS with a focus on barley. Based on German winter barley cultivars, four different single‐marker and haplotype‐based methods were tested for their power to detect significant associations in a large genome with a limited number of markers. We identified significant associations for yield and quality‐related traits using the iSelect array with 3886 mapped single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers in a structured population consisting of 109 genotypes. Genome simulations with different numbers of genotypes, marker densities and marker effects were used to compare different GWAS methods. Results of simulations revealed a higher power in detecting significant associations for haplotype‐ than for single‐marker approaches, but showed a higher false discovery rate for SNP detection, due to lack of correction for population structure. Our simulations revealed that a population size of about 500 individuals is required to detect QTLs explaining a small trait variance (<10%).     

Positionality and protocol in field research: Undertaking community‐based investigations in Samoa

This article considers the experiences of a Samoan female geographer undertaking community‐based field research in her home country, and identifies some lessons for researchers working in similar circumstances. The paper suggests that ethical behaviour in research is ‘place‐specific’, and there is therefore a need to employ culturally sensitive and ‘location‐specific’ methodologies when undertaking community‐based research fieldwork. For the lead researcher, growing up in Samoa played a significant role in gaining an understanding of a set of robust and effective procedures to evaluate citizens' resilience to climatic and other environmental challenges. Fluency in everyday and more formal local languages, and awareness of local differences, each with multi‐layered connections to local communities, understanding cultural nuances and practising respect for va tapuia [sacred space or relationships] protocols, together facilitated the process of knowledge acquisition and helped to confirm the validity of the conclusions derived from the study.     

Development of molecular linkage maps in sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) using sequence‐related amplified polymorphism markers

Sweet potato is an important food crop with high starch content. It is a hexaploid species, for which the chromosomes have not yet been well characterized. In this study, we used 856 SRAP primer pairs to analyse the 240 individuals from a mapping population, which were derived from a hybrid F₁ generation of ‘Luoxushu 8’ (female) and ‘Zhengshu 20’ (male). Genetic linkage maps of the two parents were constructed. In the female parent (‘Luoxushu 8’), the linkage map consisted of 1391 markers, and the length of the linkage map was estimated to be 10,188.4 cM with an average distance of 7.17 cM between markers. In the male parent (‘Zhengshu 20’), the final linkage map consisted of 1,112 markers, and the estimated length of the map was 9,165.17 cM with an average distance of 8.40 cM between markers. Our results provide a basis for the detailed characterization of sweet potato chromosome sequences and the development of related molecular markers.     

Changing climate and potential impacts on potato yield and quality ‘CHIP’: introduction, aims and methodology

Climate change effects caused by an increasing concentration of CO₂ and ozone represent an issue of major concern both for scientists and policy-makers. In a concerted program funded by the Commission of the European Union, a European network of experiments (in open-top chambers (OTC), and free air carbon dioxide enrichment systems (FACE)) and modelling was carried out to investigate the effects of increasing atmospheric CO₂ and ozone concentrations, under different climatic conditions, on potato (Solanum tuberosum L. cv. Bintje). This contribution describes the experimental network and the standard protocol set-up for the assessments that served to improve and to validate process oriented potato growth simulation models leading to scenarios of future productivity of potato in Europe.     

Schedule of Two level Multi object based on Relatively Prior Weight

The default of conventional schedule is expounded, which only emphasizes on system's overall object but overlooks sub system's local object. A mathematical model of two level multi object is put forward. The concept of relatively prior weight is defined, and a heuristic algorithm is given out. The results of computer simulation show that the algorithm is effective.     

Root‐lodging resistance in maize as an example for high‐throughput genetic mapping via single nucleotide polymorphism‐based selective genotyping

Large‐scale selective genotyping and high‐throughput analysis are two important strategies for low‐cost and high‐effective genetic mapping. In this study, selective genotyping was applied to four maize F₂ populations. Thirty plants were selected from each of the two tails of the original F₂ populations to represent extreme resistant and susceptible plants to root lodging, and genotyped individually with 1536 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). A quantitative trait locus (QTL) was declared when at least three closely linked SNPs showed significant allele frequency difference between the two tails. Nine QTL were identified for root lodging across the four populations, which were located on chromosomes 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 and 10 and one of them was shared between two populations. A total of 20 segregation distortion regions (SDRs) were identified across the four populations, one of which was co‐localized with a QTL on chromosome 4. The tightly linked SNPs identified in this study can be used for marker‐assisted selection for root lodging. Selective genotyping, when combined with pooled DNA analysis, can be used to develop strategies for high‐throughput genetic mapping for all crops.     

Rural‐to‐Urban Commuting: Three Degrees of Integration

Commuting ties between rural places of residence and urban places of employment are among the most visible forms of rural–urban integration. For some rural areas, access to urban employment is a key source of population retention and growth. However, this access varies considerably across rural areas, with distance representing a primary deterrent. In addition to distance, the size of the urban community will also influence rural‐to‐urban commuting opportunities. In this paper, using Canadian data, we empirically estimated the influence of local rural population and job growth on rural out‐commuting within the urban hierarchy. We find consistent support for the deconcentration hypothesis where population moves to rural areas for lifestyle and quality of life reasons, while retaining urban employment. Further, we find some evidence that in addition to distance from the nearest urban center being a deterrent, increased remoteness from the top of the urban hierarchy exerts a positive influence on out‐commuting. Recognition of these types of rural–urban linkages through commuting is essential in designing Canadian rural policy and targeted programs that may effectively support local rural populations. In particular, they point to the need to have reasonable transportation infrastructure for urban accessibility, which should be complemented by other “built” infrastructure to improve the livability of rural communities.