Prevalence of haematozoa in birds of prey in Catalonia, north-east Spain.

Blood samples from birds of prey, 95 Strigiformes and 190 Falconiformes, were examined for the presence of haematozoan parasites. The birds had been admitted to a raptor recovery centre in Catalonia, north-east Spain. Parasites were counted in positive smears. A second blood sample was obtained from 99 birds at least seven days after their arrival at the centre. Haematozoa were detected in all seven species of Strigiformes and in nine of 19 species of Falconiformes. The overall prevalences in the two groups were significantly different, 30.5 per cent and 46.3 per cent in the nocturnal and diurnal raptors, respectively. Eleven species of haematozoan parasites were identified. The genus most commonly detected in members of the nocturnal Strigiformes was Leucocytozoon, followed by Haemoproteus, Plasmodium and Trypanosoma. In the diurnal Falconiformes only Leucocytozoon and Haemoproteus were detected. The highest infection rates were found in Accipiter nisus (sparrow hawks), Accipiter gentilis (goshawks) and Athene noctua (little owls). Relapses were detected in 9 per cent of the birds sampled twice. The highest intensity of infection (6.2 per cent) was observed in a Buteo buteo (buzzard) infected with Haemoproteus.     

Prevalence and relevance of avian Toxoplasma gondii infections in Europe

Toxoplasma (T.) gondii is a parasitic protozoon whose life cycle includes a definite and an intermediate host. Besides a wide range of mammals also birds are suitable intermediate hosts. There are a high number of case reports, prevalence data and experimental studies regarding avian toxoplasmosis. In many domestic, wild and zoo bird species which are relevant in Europe the susceptibility for T. gondii infection could be demonstrated though susceptibility for clinical disease often seems to be low, especially in gallinaceous birds. Comprehensive Europe-wide studies concerning the occurrence of avian toxoplasmosis have not been conducted so far. The general infestation ratio of birds on European free-range poultry farms seems to be relatively high. The European wild bird population represents a significant reservoir for the pathogen. When evaluating the seroprevalence it has to be considered that sensitivity and specificity of the detection methods for T. gondii specific antigens which are used frequently in mammals often are not satisfying in birds.     

Blood parasites of some West African rainforest birds

A total of 969 birds representing 121 species of 21 families from the West African nations of Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Ivory Coast were examined for haematozoa using thin blood smears; 277 individuals (28.6%) harbored blood parasites. The parasites identified included species of Haemoproteus (7.7% prevalence), Plasmodium (10.7%), Leucocytozoon (4.6%), and Trypanosoma (7.3%). In addition, microfilariae of filariid nematodes were present in 3.6% of the individuals examined. The birds were collected over a period of 12 years, from 1989-2001, from rainforest and ecotone habitats. We report a relatively high prevalence of parasites in colonial nesting birds, and two species of ground nesting birds. In addition, we compared data from bird species collected at a site identical to a previously published study, and did not find significant differences in parasite prevalence between the two years constituting two different seasons. Our results are also compared to other studies in Africa that implement similar and different methodologies.     

Geographical distribution and seasonality of the prevalence of Leucocytozoon lovati in Japanese rock ptarmigans (Lagopus mutus japonicus) found in the alpine regions of Japan

In this study, we investigated the geographical distribution and seasonality of Leucocytozoon lovati infection in the Japanese rock ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus japonicus); this bird is one of the special natural monuments of Japan that inhabits the Japanese alpine regions. We examined blood samples from birds captured in the Kubiki, Hida, and Akaishi mountain ranges for three years from 2002 to 2005. Seventy-three blood samples from 42 males, 19 females, and 12 birds of unknown sex were used for this study. The rate of infection with L. lovati was 78.1% in the 73 birds examined. We demonstrated that the L. lovati infection was distributed across wide ranges of ptarmigan populations from the northern to the southern alpine zones. There was no sex bias in the prevalence ratio. The prevalence of L. lovati and the level of parasitization of the blood cells tended to increase from spring through summer; in contrast, a decrease was observed from summer through autumn. Although L. lovati infection was observed in a number of local populations inhabiting three mountainous regions, no infected birds were found in Mt. Johnen-dake and Mt. Maejohnen-dake. It is necessary to continue surveying the relationship between the population dynamics of the ptarmigan and the density of the arthropod vector from the perspective of in situ conservation of this endangered species.     

Characterization of mycoplasma gallisepticum infection in captive house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus) in 1998

Since 1995, the epidemic of mycoplasmal conjunctivitis in eastern house finches has affected the Auburn, AL, house finch population. To better characterize the current status of this host-parasite interaction, we established a captive flock of 38 seronegative, healthy finches in fall 1998. After a minimum quarantine period of 4 wk, two Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG)-infected house finches were introduced into this flock. Over a 12-wk period, the flock was captured every 2 wk and each bird was observed for conjunctivitis. Blood and choanal swabs were collected from each bird for serologic analysis and for the detection of MG by polymerase chain reaction. The infection spread rapidly through the flock just as it had in a similar study performed in 1996 at the height of the epidemic. Unlike the earlier study in which birds remained chronically infected, most of the birds in our study recovered rapidly, and only three of the birds died during the study. Two patterns of host response to infection with MG were observed. Twenty-seven birds (73%) experienced an acute conjunctivitis that resolved, and the birds appeared to clear the infection. Ten birds (27%) suffered prolonged clinical disease, and MG could be detected in these birds intermittently throughout the experiment. These results, in conjunction with our surveys of MG in the wild population, suggest an evolving host-parasite interaction.     

Phylogenetic comparison of Leucocytozoon spp. from wild birds of Japan

Eight species of Japanese birds were found to be infected with Leucocytozoon species using microscopic analysis. We used PCR and sequence analysis of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene (cyt b) to compare the genetic background among these detected protozoa species. In 20 individuals of 22 samples, a single amplified band was detected from 6 of 8 bird species; 9 Japanese rock ptarmigans (Lagopus mutus japonicus), 4 large-billed crows (Corvus macrorhynchos), 2 carrion crows (C. corone), 2 scops owls (Otus scops), 1 Japanese grosbeak (Eophona personata), and 2 brown-eared bulbuls (Hypsipetes amaurotis), respectively. Phylogenetic analysis based on the partial cyt b sequences revealed that all Leucocytozoon isolates in Japan closely grouped with other Leucocytozoon species previously reported in the literature. Among the Japanese isolates, the phylogenetic tree suggested that L. lovati from the Japanese rock ptarmigan may be basal to the parasites found in other bird species. Our study is the first to identify the molecular relationships among Leucocytozoon parasites in the avifauna of Japan.     

Methods of detection of Chlamydia psittaci in domesticated and wild birds

OBJECTIVE: To study the occurrence of Chlamydia psittaci in domesticated and wild birds and compare the sensitivity of molecular detection with cell culture isolation. DESIGN: Study of cell culture isolation and PCR detection of C psittaci in avian samples. PROCEDURE: Samples were obtained from 485 birds. Domesticated birds were selected at random from pet shops, private aviaries and zoos, while wild birds were captured locally, sampled, and immediately released. Swabs were collected from choanal slit, conjunctiva and cloaca of each bird and pooled. Samples were divided into equal portions for use in PCR dot-blot and cell culture detection. PCR and dot-blot detection was based on the ompB gene. RESULTS: Prevalence of infection varied markedly between flocks of captive birds. It was highest where there were frequent changes in the flock members or where there were many birds confined in small areas. C psittaci was not detected in wild birds or water birds. The sensitivity of cell culture compared to PCR dot-blot detection was 68%. All samples positive by cell culture were also positive by PCR. CONCLUSIONS: PCR-dot blot detection of C psittaci in birds appears to be more sensitive than cell culture isolation in this study. C psittaci infection of birds may occur in clinically normal captive birds.     

Prevalence of blood parasites in Japanese wild birds

The prevalence of blood parasites was investigated in 701 Japanese wild birds for 13 years from January, 1988 to March, 2001. Most of the injured or sick birds were caught in the suburbs of Kobe City, Hyogo Prefecture and brought to the zoo for clinical care. Among all the birds examined, 10.6% were infected with hematozoa belonging to three genera as Plasmodium (1.7% of the samples), Haemoproteus (5.1% of the samples) and Leucocytozoon (4.6% of the samples), and two birds (0.29% of the samples), a Japanese grosbeak (Coccothraustes personatus) and a dusky thrush (Turdus naumanni), were infected with microfilariae. Mixed infection with Leucocytozoon sp. and Haemoproteus sp. was observed in 6 individuals of 4 species and that with Leucocytozoon sp. and microfilariae was observed in 2 individuals of 2 species of bird. Relatively high positive rates were 75%(3/4) in the scops owl (Otus scops), 71.4% (10/14) in the ural owl (Strix uralensis), 57.7% (15/26) in the jungle crow (Corvus macrorhynchos), 57.1% (4/7) in the black-tailed gull (Larus crassirostris), 55.6% (5/9) in the brown hawk owl (Ninox scutulata), 41% (16/39) in the carrion crow (Corvus corone) and 24.1% (7/29) in the night heron (Nycticorax nicticorax).     

The characterization of low pathogenic avian influenza viruses isolated from wild birds in northern Vietnam from 2006 to 2009

Due to concerns that wild birds could possibly spread H5N1 viruses, surveillance was conducted to monitor the types of avian influenza viruses circulating among the wild birds migrating to or inhabiting in northern Vietnam from 2006 to 2009. An H5N2 virus isolated from a Eurasian woodcock had a close phylogenetic relationship to H5 viruses recently isolated in South Korea and Japan, suggesting that H5N2 has been shared between Vietnam, South Korea, and Japan. An H9N2 virus isolated from a Chinese Hwamei was closely related to two H9N2 viruses that were isolated from humans in Hong Kong in 2009, suggesting that an H9N2 strain relevant to the human isolates had been transmitted to and maintained among the wild bird population in Vietnam and South China. The results support the idea that wild bird species play a significant role in the spread and maintenance of avian influenza and that this also occurs in Vietnam.     

Surveillance for highly pathogenic avian influenza in wild birds in the USA

As part of the USA's National Strategy for Pandemic Influenza, an Interagency Strategic Plan for the Early Detection of Highly Pathogenic H5N1 Avian Influenza in Wild Migratory Birds was developed and implemented. From 1 April 2006 through 31 March 2009, 261 946 samples from wild birds and 101 457 wild bird fecal samples were collected in the USA; no highly pathogenic avian influenza was detected. The United States Department of Agriculture, and state and tribal cooperators accounted for 213 115 (81%) of the wild bird samples collected; 31, 27, 21 and 21% of the samples were collected from the Atlantic, Pacific, Central and Mississippi flyways, respectively. More than 250 species of wild birds in all 50 states were sampled. The majority of wild birds (86%) were dabbling ducks, geese, swans and shorebirds. The apparent prevalence of low pathogenic avian influenza viruses during biological years 2007 and 2008 was 9.7 and 11.0%, respectively. The apparent prevalence of H5 and H7 subtypes across all species sampled were 0.5 and 0.06%, respectively. The pooled fecal samples (n= 101 539) positive for low pathogenic avian influenza were 4.0, 6.7 and 4.7% for biological years 2006, 2007 and 2008, respectively. The highly pathogenic early detection system for wild birds developed and implemented in the USA represents the largest coordinated wildlife disease surveillance system ever conducted. This effort provided evidence that wild birds in the USA were free of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (given the expected minimum prevalence of 0.001%) at the 99.9% confidence level during the surveillance period.     

Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus subtype H5N1 in Mute swans in the Czech Republic

In order to determine the actual prevalence of avian influenza viruses (AIV) in wild birds in the Czech Republic extensive surveillance was carried out between January and April 2006. A total of 2101 samples representing 61 bird species were examined for the presence of influenza A by using PCR, sequencing and cultivation on chicken embryos. AIV subtype H5N1 was detected in 12 Mute swans (Cygnus olor). The viruses were determined as HPAI (highly pathogenic avian influenza) and the hemagglutinin sequence was closely similar to A/mallard/Italy/835/06 and A/turkey/Turkey/1194/05. Following the first H5N1 case, about 300 wild birds representing 33 species were collected from the outbreak region and tested for the presence of AIV without any positive result. This is the first report of highly pathogenic avian influenza subtype H5N1 in the Czech Republic. The potential role of swan as an effective vector of avian influenza virus is also discussed.     

First record of avian Plasmodium DNA from mosquitoes collected in the Yaeyama Archipelago, southwestern border of Japan

We studied the prevalence of avian Plasmodium in 509 mosquitoes of 9 species collected from the Ishigaki and Iriomote islands in the Yaeyama Archipelago, located southwest from the mainland of Japan. Two identical avian Plasmodium lineages were detected from Culex (Culiciomyia) nigropunctatus. Detected lineages were phylogenetically classified into different clade to avian Plasmodium lineages from birds and mosquitoes in the mainland of Japan but identical to a lineage detected from a resident bird, White-breasted Waterken (Amaurornis phoenicurus). This is the first detection of avian Plasmodium DNA from mosquitoes in the Yaeyama Archipelago and suggested that resident birds might have been infected with an avian Plasmodium lineage specific to the studied area and C. nigropunctatus could be the candidate vector mosquito species.     

First detection of Chlamydia psittaci from a wild native passerine bird in New Zealand

AIMS: To undertake disease surveillance for Chlamydia psittaci in native birds as part of a pilot study to examine pathogen diversity on Hauturu-o-Toi/Little Barrier Island. To retrospectively review the Massey University post-mortem database to determine previous cases of avian chlamydiosis in New Zealand.

METHODS:Mistnetting of forest birds was conducted across an elevational gradient on Hauturu-o-Toi/Little Barrier Island. Minitip culture swabs were used to collect cloacal samples from native birds. These swabs were screened for Chlamydia family DNA using two PCR methods. Positive results were sequenced. A retrospective review of the Massey University post-mortem database of all avian cases from 1990 to 2011 was conducted.

RESULTS:Ten native birds including four bellbirds (Anthornis melanura), three rifleman (Acanthisitta chloris), two hihi (Notiomyces cincta), and one whitehead (Mohoua albicilla) were sampled and one otherwise healthy female hihi was positive by both PCR screening methods for Chlamydophila. Sequencing confirmed 99–100% genetic similarity to C. psittaci. A retrospective review of the Massey University post-mortem database revealed no previous diagnoses of avian chlamydiosis in wild native New Zealand birds although it has been detected in captive parrots, and wild and captive exotic pigeons.

CONCLUSIONS:This is the first report of the detection of C. psittaci from a wild native bird in New Zealand. The bird was a Passeriforme from an endangered species that was captured free-living on Little Barrier Island. The incidence of avian chlamydiosis in native birds in New Zealand appears to be very low, based on the retrospective review of the post-mortem database.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE: It is unlikely that avian chlamydiosis is a significant problem for hihi population health. The detection of this organism has greater significance for other more susceptible species on Little Barrier Island and for human health, particularly for conservation workers involved in wildlife translocations. It further suggests that passerine birds may be a reservoir for C. psittaci in New Zealand ecosystems.     

Avian trichomoniasis: a study of lesions and relative prevalence in a variety of captive and free-living bird species as seen in an Australian avian practice

Background Studies of avian trichomoniasis in the literature are limited to some extent, often being confined to a single bird species or group of species within a bird Order. Some incidence studies have been reported for free‐living birds, and occasionally for captive birds. Very few reports describe the prevalence and types of lesions seen for a wide range of bird species, especially from a clinical perspective. Methods Retrospective study of avian practice records from a 10‐year period. Emphasis on the types of presentations and relative prevalence of trichomoniasis in a variety of captive and free‐living bird species encountered in Australian avian practice. Results The occurrence of trichomoniasis in several novel species (lorikeets, corvids and a cuckoo species), plus its distinctive presentation in southern boobook owls (Ninox boobook), is documented. Conclusion Trichomoniasis should be a differential diagnosis for birds presenting with regurgitation or upper gastrointestinal abscesses, even if motile trichomonads are not found in wet preparations from crop washes or lesions.     

A survey of gastro-intestinal parasitic infection in domestic and wild birds in Chittagong and Greater Sylhet,Bangladesh

A survey of gastrointestinal parasitic infection as determined by faecal examination was conducted among domestic and wild birds in Bangladesh. Birds were sampled from households, wet markets and wetlands in Chittagong and Greater Sylhet districts during April 2012 to February 2013. Mist nets were used to catch resident wild and migratory birds. The overall prevalence of parasitic infection ranged among locations from 25 to 55% in indigenous domestic ducks (live bird samples = 304), 20% in resident wild birds (environmental faecal samples = 40) and 40% in migratory birds (live bird samples = 35). The prevalence of parasitic infection was significantly higher in indigenous domestic ducks collected during summer (39%) than winter (22%) (p = 0.04). In domestic indigenous ducks and Muscovy ducks, both single and multiple types of parasitic infections were found. However, other domestic birds and wild birds often had a single type of parasitic infection. Ascaridia spp. with an average egg load of 50–900, was commonly detected in faecal samples of domestic and wild birds in this study. Other identified parasites were Capillaria spp. and Heterakis spp. both in domestic and wild birds. Improvement of biosecurity measures for household duck farms through educating and motivating household farmers could help mitigate the effects of parasitic infection on production.     

Health status of northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) in eastern Kansas

The health status of wild northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) from Lyon County, Kansas, was evaluated by conducting comprehensive health assessments on 25 birds. Gross lesions indicative of avian pox, ulcerative enteritis, and quail bronchitis were not present. Serologic tests for antibodies to Salmonella pullorum, Salmonella gallinarum, Pasteurella multocida, Mycoplasma gallisepticum, Mycoplasma synoviae, and avian adenoviruses were all negative. Intestinal coccidia (Eimeria spp.) were found in 36% of the birds. Only three species of helminth parasites were found: Dispharynx nasuta in two birds, Cyrnea colini in one bird, and larval Physaloptera sp. in four birds. Arthropod parasites (ticks, lice, mites, and/or chiggers) were present on 96% of the birds examined. Compared with wild bobwhite populations in the southeastern United States, the diversity, prevalence, and intensities of microbial and parasitic agents were low.     

野生鸟类与禽流感

野生鸟类是生态系统中不可缺少的组成部分，近年来频频发生的禽流感事件及其流行特点显示禽流感的发生与野鸟活动存在一定关系。本文介绍禽流感及近期流行特点与野生鸟类关系，并就防控禽流感保护野生鸟类提出一系列建议和方法。     

More than classical Chlamydia psittaci in urban pigeons

In the literature, studies of Chlamydia infection in birds have usually been confined to the search for Chlamydia (C., formerly Chlamydophila) psittaci, so that little is known about the presence of other chlamydial agents. In the present study, cloacal swabs and faeces samples of urban pigeons have been examined by real-time PCR, DNA microarray assays and partial ompA sequencing. Whilst C. psittaci was the predominant chlamydial agent in this pigeon population (75.8% of all Chlamydiaceae positives), the combined use of highly specific and sensitive molecular assays facilitated the detection of atypical serovars of C. psittaci, as well as other species of Chlamydia, such as C. abortus. Detection of C. pecorum and C. trachomatis from an avian host is reported here for the first time. Rather unexpectedly, 19.5% of all Chlamydiaceae-positive cases turned out to be infected with non-classified organisms. The considerable prevalence of these novel agents raises the question of their epidemiological importance and possible role as pathogens. Future surveys in domestic and wild birds will have to take the extended variety of chlamydial organisms into account.