Approaching Cumulative Effects through Air Pollution Modelling

The research presented here represents a segment of a cumulative impact assessment of resource development in northeastern British Columbia. It considers point and area source emissions of sulphur and nitrogen oxides (SO₂ and NO _x , respectively), over a 2,156-km² area. With the exception of open burning, all emissions are from Upstream Oil and Gas (UOG) sector sources (SO₂, n?=?103; NO _x , n?=?250; area, n?=?25). AERMOD View? was used to estimate the maximum potential concentration and deposition of these pollutants over 1-h, 3-h, 24-h, and annual averaging periods. Results are compared with various thresholds and limits from the policy and scientific literature to assess the potential cumulative effects of these pollutants. Of the thresholds employed, exceedances of the 1-h and 24-h NO _x concentrations and the annual SO₂ concentration are predicted. There were no predicted exceedances of annual deposition thresholds (i.e., ??Critical Loads??). Maximum predicted concentrations vary between compounds and are related to boundary layer stability, elevation, and distance from sources. Comparison with nearby monitoring data indicated that predicted concentrations were reasonable and that AERMOD provides a useful tool for approaching the potential cumulative impacts of air pollution from multiple sources. While the accuracy of Gaussian-based annual deposition estimates is questioned, model enhancements that could extend the application to more comprehensive assessments are suggested. Lastly, the implications of predicted threshold violations for forest ecosystems and local forest-dependent First Nations communities are discussed.     

Assessing the Role of a Limestone Quarry as Sediment Source in a Developing Tropical Catchment

Impact assessments on river systems of the combined effect of bed and suspended sediment loads from quarries are difficult to find. In this study, bed and suspended loads were measured to determine the impact of a 20‐ha limestone quarry on the river system of its 5,000‐ha steep, diverse land use/land cover but mostly forested catchment. A network of hydrologic and sediment monitoring instruments was deployed over the catchment during two separate study periods when sediment loadings were measured from captured storms. Results showed that the quarry stood to make a disproportionately large contribution to the catchment's estimated 2·1 Mg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ suspended sediment load. Large storm events contributed most of the loadings with five events supplying 92% of total loadings at the outlet. A paired method approach to compare suspended sediment loads between two subcatchments showed that during eight storm events, the quarry yielded between 2 and 49·2 Mg ha⁻¹ per event, whereas the forest never yielded more than 0·1 Mg ha⁻¹. Furthermore, the contribution of sediments from the quarry to bed load was more than 75% at a section located 1·2 km downstream. Future management activities to reduce sediment and bed loads, not only from this catchment but also from all others with similar land use/land covers, should focus on improving quarry operations. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Coordinated Effects Monitoring and Modelling for Developing and Supporting International Air Pollution Control Agreements

For 20 years the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution has worked to control air pollutant emissions in Europe and North America. Its Working Group on Effects (WGE) has been responsible for much of the underpinning science. The WGE's six International Cooperative Programmes (ICPs) on Waters, Natural Vegetation and Crops, Forests, Materials and Cultural Heritage, Integrated Monitoring, and Modelling and Mapping, together with a Joint Task Force on Human Health with WHO, quantify air pollution effects on the environment through monitoring, modelling and scientific review. Early work found evidence to support the need for decreases in emissions of sulphur and nitrogen pollutants. More recently, monitoring results and models have provided the scientific basis, e.g. critical loads and levels, for effects-based Protocols and for evaluating their effectiveness. ICP studies on trends show recovery from acidification effects in keeping with the fall in sulphur emissions. Steady-state models provide an indication of long-term improvements. Recent increased emphasis on developing dynamic models will enable better links between recovery rates and abatement strategies. The scientific network of the ICPs and the monitoring and modelling results have been key to the development of the Convention and are an essential component for its success in the future.     

Reducing NO2 Pollution over Urban Areas: Air Quality Modelling as a Fundamental Management Tool

Recently, specific air quality problems have been detected in the northern region of Portugal. The nitrogen oxide (NO₂) annual limit value has been surpassed at several air quality monitoring stations in the northern region, and according to European legislation, air quality plans must be designed and implemented to reduce those levels. The analysis of the air quality data from the stations concerning NO₂ exceedances indicates that traffic is responsible for an increase of more than 40?% compared with the urban background value. Specific measures to reduce NOx emissions have been selected and are related not only mainly to the traffic sector but also to the industrial and residential combustion sectors. The main objective of this study is to investigate the impact of the selected measures on the ambient levels of NO₂ in northern Portugal using a numerical modelling tool??The Air Pollution Model (TAPM). TAPM was applied over the study region using a 120?×?120-km² simulation domain and a spatial resolution of 4.8?×?4.8?km². The entire year of 2010 was simulated and was set as the base year to analyse the impact of the selected measures. Two scenarios have been defined and simulated: the base situation, which considers current NOx emissions, and the reduction scenario for which NOx emissions were re-estimated considering the implementation of the measures. The modelling results demonstrate a decrease of 4?C5???g?m^?3 in the annual NO₂ levels in the study region. Moreover, the implementation of the selected measures will allow compliance with the NO₂ annual limit values in three of the five air quality stations that measured levels surpassing those established by legislation. This situation demands additional measures that should be implemented at the local level and that particularly focus on the traffic sector.     

Proposed Indices for Assessing Soil Pollution Under the Application of Sludge

The assessment of soil pollution with heavy metals has been studied, based on experimental soil and plant analytical heavy metal data obtained by a pot experiment conducted during 2010?C2011 in a green house. A completely randomized block design was used, including the following sludge treatments (in tons per hectare): 0, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, and (30+treated wastewater) in four replications. Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) var. longifolia was used as a test plant. Three indices were proposed, i.e., (1) elemental pollution index, (2) heavy metal load, and (3) total concentration factor. They were found to be linearly and statistically significantly related to the pollution load index, which was used as a reference index, and curvilinearly related to lettuce dry matter yield. It was concluded that the above indices could be used for the assessment of soil pollution level.     

Influence of Air Pollution and Humidity on Limestone Materials Degradation in Historical Buildings Located in Cities Under Tropical Coastal Climates

Climatic changes and the increased air pollution intensify the atmospheric degradation of stone, affecting the aspect and integrity of valuable historical buildings constructed using limestone and located in tropical coastal sites. This paper analyzes limestone degradation process due to air pollution and humidity in tropical humid conditions in historical buildings located in the cities of Havana, Cuba and San Francisco de Campeche, Mexico. Havana shows higher pollution level than San Francisco de Campeche, which presents pollution levels as a consequence of a multipollutant situation along with the presence of airborne salinity. Temperature and humidity data were recorded from the walls of historical buildings in the city of Havana: the Minor Basilica and the convent of San Francisco. Changes in dry/wet cycles due to the absence of direct sun radiation as well as a high level of SO₂ allow the formation of a black crust (mainly composed of gypsum) in the lower part of the surface of the facade of the Basilica Minor in Havana; however, crusts formed in historical buildings located in San Francisco de Campeche City are mainly composed of calcium carbonate, indicating the importance of natural degradation mechanisms mainly due to dissolution in water. In the last case, the influence of water plays an important role in the development of biodegradation, which induces the formation of calcium oxalates. Caves and cracks were found in the walls of military buildings caused by water infiltration. The influence of air contamination, humidity, and construction materials determine the type of degradation that historical buildings undergo.     

Air Pollution Processing by Radiation Fogs

Several fog episodes occurred in California’s San Joaquin Valley during winter 2000/2001. Measurements revealed the fogs to generally be less than 50 m deep, but to contain high liquid water contents (frequently exceeding 200 mg/m³) and large droplets. The composition of the fog water was dominated by ammonium (median concentration?=?608 μN), nitrate (304 μN), and organic carbon (6.9 ppmC), with significant contributions also from nitrite (18 μN) and sulfate (56 μN). Principal organic species included formate (median concentration?=?32 μN), acetate (31 μN), and formaldehyde (21 μM). High concentrations of ammonia resulted in high fog pH values, ranging between 5.8 and 8.0 at the core measurement site. At this high pH aqueous phase oxidation of dissolved sulfur dioxide and reaction of S(IV) with formaldehyde to form hydroxymethanesulfonate are both important processes. The fogs are also effective at scavenging and removal of airborne particulate matter. Deposition velocities for key solutes in the fog are typically of the order of 1–2 cm/s, much higher than deposition velocities of precursor accumulation mode aerosol particles. Variations were observed in deposition velocities for individual constituents in the order NO₂ ^??>?fogwater?>?NH₄ ⁺?>?TOC ～ SO₄ ^2??>?NO₃ ^?. Nitrite, observed to be enriched in large fog drops, had a deposition velocity higher than the average fogwater deposition velocity, due to the increase in drop settling velocity with size. Species enriched in small fog drops (NH₄ ⁺, TOC, SO₄ ^2?, and NO₃ ^?) all had deposition velocities smaller than observed for fogwater. Typical boundary layer removal rates for major fog solute species were estimated to be approximately 0.5–1 μg m^?3 h^?1, indicating the important role regional fogs can play in reducing airborne pollutant concentrations.     

S. E. Gryning and N. Chaumerliac (eds): Air Pollution Modelling and Its Application XII

Water, Air, &; Soil Pollution -     

Modelling Some Heavy Metals Air Concentration in Europe

Metals, as well as other air toxic pollutants, can be responsible for a range of human health effects via inhalation or ingestion. European normatives regulate lead, arsenic, cadmium, mercury and nickel ambient air levels in order to prevent potential damage to human health and ecosystems; annual target levels of 500, 6, 5 and 20?ng/m³ for Pb, As, Cd and Ni are set for these pollutants in directives 2008/50/CE and 2004/107/CE. Air quality models constitute a powerful tool to understand tropospheric dynamic and to assign concentration values to areas where no measurement is available. However, not many models include heavy metals in their code, and mainly results for Pb, Cd and Hg have been published. In this paper, we present preliminary results on modelling Pb, Cd, As, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cr and Se air background concentration in Europe using the CHIMERE model, at a 0.2° resolution and the evaluation of the model performance in order to see its capability to reproduce observed levels. This evaluation was performed by comparing simulated values with observations at the EMEP monitoring sites, as only values at background sites can be captured at the 0.2° model resolution. Important uncertainties mainly related to emissions should be solved in order to obtain an improvement of model performance; more recent annual totals, information on snap activities for each metal, higher spatial resolution and a better knowledge of the temporal emission behaviour is necessary to adequately model these air pollutants. Also a better treatment of these particles considering more realistic metal size distribution, more refined deposition processes or some chemical processes regarding Se could result in better model results. A larger number of stations and a better temporal coverage of observations are also important to carry out a better statistical analysis of model performance.     

The Need for Education in Developing Acceptable Air Pollution Control Strategies

The acute effects of air pollution on human health and the environment are well understood and the arguments for measures to prevent local, gross pollution are strong. Governments and the public will accept the need for controls where effects are obvious. At the broader scale where effects may be more subtle, and where the costs of abatement are high, a convincing case is necessary before acceptable solutions are adopted. An education process is needed to provide the relevant facts in an understandable form. For major air pollutants, where international agreement for control of emissions is required, effect-based instruments have proved successful in Europe. These are designed to be cost effective by offering protection to the more sensitive areas by targeting the cheapest emission controls on the sources responsible for effects. This level of complexity has demanded improved education and communication for all those involved in the decision-making process. The principles and approaches that have provided success are discussed. Attention to these is needed in the future if more stringent and costlier measures are to be agreed.     

Water,Air, and Soil Pollution

Water, Air, & Soil Pollution -     

Water,Air, and Soil Pollution. Information for Authors

Water, Air, &; Soil Pollution -     

Air Pollution Effects on Terrestrial Ecosystems in Estonia

A number of positive changes have taken place since Estonia regained its independence in 1991. Air pollution from stationary sources has decreased over 2.5 times during 1990–1999, emissions of solid particles and SO₂ have declined 74% and 60%, respectively. The content of heavy metals in Estonian mosses has decreased in comparison with the early 1990s. Last five years occurrence of different kind of damages on decidious trees has not been frequent. Those facts indicate that air pollution with heavy metals and other pollutants has diminished during the last few years. As the pH of precipitation fluctuates in different parts of Estonia, it is very important to study the effect of precipitation on ecosystems on the basis of critical loads. Results indicate that, as for eutrophicating nitrogen, the actual nitrogen deposition in North-East Estonia and West-Estonian islands roughly coincides with the limits for pollution endurance. This pattern also applies to the total deposition of sulphur and nitrogen in South, North and North-East Estonia, although in some Northern and North-Eastern areas pollution endurance limits have been exceeded.     

某拟建高速公路地质灾害易发性评价

高原山地地区地质灾害多发频发,对重大建设项目安全危害极大,开展拟建高速公路区域地质灾害易发性评价研究,对后期线路选址及地质灾害防治具有重要的理论和实际意义。在分析现状地质灾害特征的基础上,从气象水文、地形地貌、岩土类型及构造、人类工程活动4个方面选取对地质灾害发育贡献程度较大的因子,基于GIS技术,结合层次分析法（AHP）和信息量法对拟建施甸至链子桥段高速公路进行地质灾害易发性评价,并将评价结果划分为高易发区、中易发区和低易发区。通过研究区已有地质灾害编目对评价结果进行验证,结果表明,AHP_信息量模型在拟建工程地质灾害易发性评价中可操作性强,评价结果可靠性高。     

Assessing Health Effects of Air Pollution in Developing Countries

Health effects of air pollution in Asia have been assessed as part of a programme on Regional Air Pollution in Developing Countries. The impacts of air pollution on health have been studied in North America and Europe for many decades, but research on effects on health in developing countries is less advanced. A key question is whether the dose-response models that are based on research conducted in developed countries can be applied to exposures to air pollution in developing countries. The study considered this issue and examined the factors that may lead to either increased sensitivity or increased human tolerance of air pollutants. It is suggested that although there are factors in developing countries that may increase or decrease human sensitivity to air pollution, overall, a similar range of sensitivity can be expected by individuals in these countries responding to the same effective dose as those in developed countries.     

Measurement and Modelling of Particulate Pollution over Kashmir Himalaya,India

In major cities, air quality is of significant concern because of its negative effect on the health of the region’s living conditions, climate, and economy. Recent studies show the significance of the data on microlevel pollution which includes severe air pollutants and their impacts on human. Conventional methods of measuring air quality need skilled personnel for accurate data measurement that are based on stationary and limited measuring station networks. However, it is costly to seize the spatio-temporal variability and to recognize pollution hotspots that are necessary to develop real-time exposure control strategies. Due to the restricted accessibility of information and the non-scalability of standard techniques for air pollution monitoring, a real-time system with both higher spatial and temporal resolution is crucial. In recent times, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) mounted with various sensors have been implemented for on-site air quality surveillance as they can offer new methods and research possibilities in air pollution and emission tracking, as well as in the study of environmental developments. An extensive literature review has been conducted, and it was observed that there are types of UAVs and types of sensors that are used for air quality monitoring for the parameters like CO, SO₂, NO₂, O₃, PM_2.5, PM_1.0, and black carbon. Low-cost wireless sensors have been using for monitoring purpose in the past studies, and when results obtained are validated with the stationary monitoring instruments, the coefficient of correlation (R²) is found to be varied from 0.3 to 0.9. The difficulties, however, are not just technical, but at present time, policies and laws, which vary from country to country, symbolize the major challenge to the extensive use of UAVs in air quality/monitoring studies.

     

Trans-Pacific Air Pollution: Scientific Evidence & Political Implications

Long-range tropospheric transport of acidic and non-acidic contaminants into or across the Pacific Ocean from sources originating in Pacific Rim countries and beyond (trans-Pacific air pollution, for short) is an emerging international environmental issue. This paper provides a definition of trans-Pacific air pollution; summarizes some of the scientific evidence for what seems to be the dominant pollutant pathway in the Asia-Pacific region, transport on westerly winds from Asia to North America; discusses a recent conference on trans-Pacific air pollution; and analyzes some of the political implications of the problem. Evidence for trans-Pacific air pollution comes from three main sources: observational data, computer simulations, and research on concentrations of pollutants in various media. Trans-Pacific air pollution is of political consequence. There may be wide-ranging physical and chemical effects if the relatively pristine air of the Pacific troposphere is altered. Domestic air quality along the west coast of North America may be altered. Degradation of the Arctic environment may be accelerated. The issue reinforces the need for greater international cooperation on environmental issues in the Asia-Pacific region.