Aboveground biomass equations for individual trees of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cryptomeria japonica</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chamaecyparis obtusa</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Larix kaempferi</Emphasis> in Japan

Generic equations are proposed for stem, branch and foliage biomass of individual trees in even-aged pure stands of Cryptomeria japonica, Chamaecyparis obtusa and Larix kaempferi. Biomass data was collected from a total of 1,016 individual trees from 247 stands throughout Japan, and five regression models were assessed by root mean square error, mean bias, fit index (FI), and AIC. The results show that a power equation using diameter at breast height (dbh) and height is the most suitable for all species and components. This equation is more accurate than the familiar power equation that uses ‘dbh² height’, and it expresses the greater volume of branch and foliage mass of trees with a lower height/diameter ratio. A power equation using dbh is more reasonable for models with dbh as the only independent variable and more accurate than a power equation using ‘dbh² height’ for estimating branch and foliage mass. Estimating error for branch and foliage mass is larger than that for stem mass, but the entire aboveground biomass can be estimated with an error of less than 19%, except in the case of small trees with dbh less than 10 cm.     

Nutrient retranslocation from the fine roots of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fraxinus mandshurica</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Larix olgensis</Emphasis> in northeastern China

Nutrient retranslocation in trees is important in nutrient budgets and energy flows in forest ecosystems. We investigated nutrient retranslocation in the fine roots of a Manchurian Ash (Fraxinus mandshurica) and a Larch (Larix olgensis) plantation in northeastern China. Nutrient retranslocation in the fine roots was investigated using three methods, specifically, nutrient concentration, the ratio of Ca to other elements (Ca/other elements ratio) and nutrient content. The method based on nutrient content proved most suitable when investigating nutrient retranslocation from fine roots of the two species. The nutrient-content-based method showed that there were retranslocations of N, P, K and Mg from the fine roots of Manchurian Ash, with retranslocation efficiencies of 13, 25, 65, and 38 %, respectively, whereas there were no Ca retranslocations. There were retranslocations of N, P, K, Ca and Mg from the fine roots of Larch, with retranslocation efficiencies of 31, 40, 52, 23 and 25 %, respectively.     

Biomass and nutrient allocation to aboveground components in fertilized <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eucalyptus saligna</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">E. urograndis</Emphasis> plantations

The objective of this study was to evaluate biomass allocation and nutrient pools in aboveground biomass components in 18-month-old plantations of Eucalyptus saligna and E. urophylla × E. grandis (i.e. E. urograndis) in Brazil. The plantations were established by pulp companies in a large area comprising three soil types (Acrisols, Vertisols and Leptosols) in the grassland biome in southern Brazil, and an operational regime of planting and maintenance fertilization was used to ensure full availability of nutrients. Vertisols showed the highest availability of soil nutrients, and the P and Ca concentrations in aboveground biomass were also highest in this type of soil. The nutritional status of both species indicates great consumption of nutrients, particularly of P, K and Ca. At this early age, canopy biomass components still made the largest relative contribution, although debarked stem biomass already accounted for 41.5% and 37.4 of total aboveground biomass in E. saligna, and E. urograndis, respectively. Nutrient concentrations in biomass components were similar across species. For all macronutrients, except Ca and Mg, the concentration gradient followed the order wood < bark < branches < leaves. For all micronutrients, except Cu, the concentration gradient followed the order wood < branches ≈ bark < leaves. At the plantation stage studied, i.e. before canopy closure, the importance of the components as nutrient pools followed the order leaves > branches > wood > bark. The branches hold the majority of Ca reserves in biomass and are a very important pool of Mg, K, P and B. The bark makes a small contribution to total biomass, but stores a similar amount of Ca as leaves, being the second major pool after the branches. Comparison of the nutrients supplied by fertilization and the amounts stored in soil and aboveground indicates that the operational dose should be adjusted to each type of soil after further experimental fertilizer trials, as the supply of N and P appears to be too high, particularly for Vertisols. This is leading to the immobilization of P in biomass components that are not of importance in the biological or biochemical nutrient cycles, thus increasing the risk of larger exports of P during biomass removal.     

Assessment of crown woody biomass in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eucalyptus grandis</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">E. globulus</Emphasis> plantations

Young trees were harvested to explore non-destructive methodologies to estimate live branch dry weights in young fast-growing Eucalyptus species under different spacing and fertilizer treatments. Branch growth can vary with silvicultural management such as spacing, fertilizing and thinning, and over relatively short periods in response to environmental conditions. Many published regressions based on standard measurements of height and diameter are site, age and treatment specific. The aim of this study was to improve our capacity to predict woody crown dry weight, based on stem measurements, and to minimize (or eliminate) treatment effects on the resulting model. In young trees, branches are temporary support structures for foliage and are often discarded as the base of the green crown rises. As temporary structures they represent an investment of biomass and nutrient elements, and are subject to selection pressures to maximize the return on investment by the tree. Trees were harvested from existing plantation experiments located in south-eastern Queensland for E. grandis W. Hill ex Maiden (ranging from 0.28 to 15.85 m in height, to 5 years old) and south-western Australia for E. globulus Labill. (0.10–34.4 m in height, to 10.2 years) in order to examine the impact of spacing, nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization on early growth. Relationships to estimate crown woody biomass from non-destructive measurements were developed, and these relationships tended to have different slopes and intercepts for trees with predominantly juvenile foliage and those with intermediate or adult foliage. Dry weight of whole-crown live branch wood (W_branch) was related to heights and/or diameter at breast height (D_BH), but the regressions parameters were different, depending on treatment. The relationships became more generic (i.e. less dependent on treatment effects) between W_branch and stem sectional area at the height of the base of the green crown (SA_CB), consistent with the pipe model theory (R² > 0.91 for the two species for trees with intermediate/adult leaves). However, W_branch was more closely related again to the stem volume above the base of the green crown and treatment effects were not significant (V_Con,gc, R² > 0.93). Branches exit the stem below the green crown, and for E. grandis the best relationship was on stem volume above the lowest live branch (V_Con,llb, R² 0.94). Limited sampling from four other species with similar or contrasting crown characteristics indicated that the relationship could be applied quite generally. Individual E. grandis branch woody dry weight was closely related to the conical volume of the main (first order) branch (V_con,br, R² 0.98₎. The whole crown equivalent, branch woody dry weight plus stem dry weight above the lowest live branch, was also closely related to the stem volume within the woody crown (V_Con,llb, R² 0.97–0.99). While the slope of this relationship was still significantly different between trees with juvenile and intermediate/adult foliage, it had a similar form, suggesting that trees with juvenile foliage allocated a different proportion of their woody biomass within the crown to branches than older trees.     

Variation analyses of growth and wood properties of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Larix olgensis</Emphasis> clones in China

The growth traits (tree height, diameter at breast height, and stem straightness degree) and wood properties [wood density (WD), fiber length, fiber width, ash content (AC), lignin content, cellulose content, hemicellulose content (HEC), and holocellulose content] of 208 26-year-old Larix olgensis clones were analyzed. Except for WD and AC, there were significant differences (p < 0.01) for all traits among clones. The phenotypic coefficient of variation and repeatability of all traits were 9.34–35.33% and 0.218–0.930, respectively. Tree height and diameter at breast height showed significant positive correlation; however, the correlation coefficients among growth characteristics and wood properties were mostly not significant. Ten clones (L70, L56, L82, L90, L59, L91, L61, L92, L86, and L64) were selected as excellent clones under a selection rate of 5%, using tree height, diameter at breast height, and stem straightness degree as evaluation indexes, providing genetic gains of 28.69, 17.96, and 0.67%, respectively. Ten clones (L88, L305, L59, L66, L253, L304, L277, L298, L248, and L293) were selected as excellent clones using wood properties as an evaluation index, with a selection rate of 5%, providing genetic gains in WD, fiber length, fiber width, cellulose content, and HEC of 4.14, 3.64, 9.28, 6.77, and 9.61%, respectively. This study provides a theoretical basis for selecting excellent L. olgensis clones.     

Screening and verification of the factors influencing somatic embryo maturation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Larix olgensis</Emphasis>

With embryogenic callus of Larix olgensisis, we investigated the effects of inositol, glutamine, casein hydrolysate, carbohydrate, abscisic acid and silver nitrate concentration on the maturation of the somatic embryo. Three dominant factors emerged, and we developed a response surface model based on the Box–Behnken design. We defined the optimal conditions for the maturation of somatic embryos. The contents of abscisic acid, silver nitrate, sucrose and casein hydrolysis significantly affected the amount of maturing embryos, but inositol, maltose and glutamine had no effect. By establishing a response surface model with multiple factors, we predicted that the optimal number of L. olgensis somatic embryos was 204?±?4 g^?1 on basal medium, containing 18.28 mg L^?1 abscisic acid, 5.46 mg L^?1 silver nitrate and 82.67 g L^?1 sucrose. In the verification experiments, the addition of 20 mg L^?1 abscisic acid, 5 mg L^?1 silver nitrate and 80 g L^?1 sucrose to BM yielded an average of 202.06 somatic embryos per gram. These results should guide large-scale breeding of L. olgensis.     

Effects of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eucalypt</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acacia</Emphasis> plantations on soil water in Sumatra

Indonesia’s pulp and paper industry needs a large area of sustainably grown plantations to support its continued development. Acacia mangium has been the key species underpinning the pulp and paper industries in Sumatra, however increased disease pressure on A. mangium is expected to require large-scale conversion of Acacia plantations to Eucalyptus in the near future. The effect of such a large scale change in plantation species on soil moisture, for both tree production, and catchment hydrology is unknown. In this study we sought to characterize the impacts of plantation species (Acacia or Eucalyptus) and nitrogen management, on soil moisture, soil water depletion and depth to groundwater under stands of Acacia mangium and Eucalyptus pellita over the first 2–3 years after establishment. The study was conducted in experiments at four sites in Sumatra, Indonesia. Soil moisture and soil water depletion were not influenced by plantation species or fertilizer treatment. Soil moisture content and soil water depletion were strongly influenced by shallow groundwater at two of the four sites, however depth to groundwater did not influence stem growth. Results from the field trials cautiously suggest that large scale conversion of Acacia mangium to Eucalypt species in these regions is unlikely to result in increased moisture stress, nor is conversion of plantation species likely to lead to substantial differences in catchment hydrology. This study demonstrated the importance of conducting multi-site studies when investigating biophysical relationships in forest/plantation systems.     

Exogenous application of succinic acid enhances tolerance of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Larix olgensis</Emphasis> seedling to lead stress

Larix olgensis A. Henry (Changbai larch) is a productive commercial species and good candidate for afforestation in northeast China. It is widely planted in lead-stressed soils which can induce oxidative damage in this plant. Increasing tolerance to lead (Pb) stress is therefore of keen interest. A greenhouse experiment was conducted to identify the biomass, physiological responses and Pb accumulation of L. olgensis seedlings to Pb stress under succinic acid (SA) application and to explore the interaction of exogenous SA applications and stress resistance. L. olgensis seedlings were planted in Pb-stressed or unstressed haplic cambisols in pots. In Pb-contaminated soils the seedlings were treated daily with concentrations of SA solutions at a rate approximately equivalent to 0, 0.04, 0.2, 1.0, or 2.0 mmol kg^?1 of soil for 10, 20, and 30 days, respectively. Pb treatment induced damage in the seedlings and led to the inhibition of biomass accumulation in roots, stems and leaves, and a rise in Pb accumulation in fine roots and leaves. Malondialdehyde (MDA) content and electrolyte leakage in leaves significantly increased while peroxidase (POD) activities, soluble protein and photosynthetic pigment contents in leaves were all reduced. Physiological toxicity was promoted with increasing Pb treatment times. When Pb-stressed seedlings were exposed to SA (especially 10.0 mmol L^?1 over 20 days), the physiological responses for Pb-only were reversed and the biomass of roots, stems, and leaves dramatically increased. SA facilitated Pb uptake in fine roots and leaves but more Pb accumulated in fine roots. The results demonstrate that exogenous SA alleviates Pb-induced oxidative injuries and improves the tolerance of L. olgensis seedlings to Pb stress.     

Biomass production,nutrient cycling and distribution in age-sequence Chinese fir (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cunninghamia lanceolate</Emphasis>) plantations in subtropical China

Biomass production and nutrient (N, P, K, Ca and Mg) accumulation, distribution and cycling were quantified in young, mature and over-mature (10-, 22-, and 34-year old) Chinese fir [Cunninghamia lanceolate (Lamb.) Hook] plantations in southern China. Total stand biomass of young, mature and over-mature stands was 38, 104 and 138 t ha^?1 respectively. Biomass production increased significantly with age. Stem wood represented the highest percentage of stand biomass, accounting for 41, 55 and 63 % in the young, mature and over-mature plantations respectively. Nutrients concentration was highest in live needles and branches, and lowest in stem wood. The plantations accumulated more N, followed by K, Ca, Mg, and P. Nutrient return amount, nutrient utilization efficiency, nutrient turnover time, the ratio of nutrient return and uptake increased with stand age, which implies that young Chinese fir deplete soil nutrients to maintain growth, and efficiently utilize nutrients to decrease dependence on soil nutrients as they age. Harvesting young Chinese fir plantations would therefore lead to high nutrient loss, but prolonging the rotation length could improve soil recovery, and help sustain productivity in the long-term. Improved nutrient return through litterfall as stands get older may also be beneficial to nutrient pool recovery.     

Successful <Emphasis Type="Italic">Agrobacterium</Emphasis>-mediated transformation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Populus tomentosa</Emphasis> with apple <Emphasis Type="Italic">SPDS</Emphasis> gene

The problem of salinized soils has become one of the most serious constraints to agricultural and forest productivity. With the purpose of enhancing salt stress tolerance of Populus tomentosa, we transformed this tree species with spermidine synthase （SPDS） genes derived from an apple by an Agrobacterium-mediated method. Four transgenic clones were confu＇med by PCR and Southern blot analysis. As well, the expression of introduced SPDS genes was analyzed by real-time quantitative PCR.     

A weeding-duration model for <Emphasis Type="Italic">Larix kaempferi</Emphasis> plantations in Hokkaido,northern Japan

In this study, a weeding-duration model for Larix kaempferi plantations was developed that employs a generalized linear model. The number of years that weeding is necessary is the response variable, and elevation, slope, maximum snow depth, annual precipitation, geological type, soil type, site index, slope aspect, and vegetation type are explanatory variables. Among the explanatory variables, geological type, soil type, slope aspect, and vegetation type are categorical data. We assumed a Poisson distribution for the response variable. The link function was log. Among the models that could be developed from these variables, we chose the model with the smallest Akaike’s information criterion (AIC). The weeding-duration model can be written as follows: years that weeding is necessary = Exp (−0.0172833 × site index + 0.0014053 × maximum snow depth (cm) + 1.7417731). The results of this study imply that weeding of Larix kaempferi plantations is needed for more years as the maximum snow depth increases and fewer years as the site index increases. This model is useful for cost–benefit analyses of afforestation or reforestation with Larix kaempferi.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Quercus suber</Emphasis> forest and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus</Emphasis> plantations show different post-fire resilience in Mediterranean north-western Africa

Key message

In the African rim of the Western Mediterranean Basin, cork oak forests and pine plantations coexist. Under similar fire regimes, cork oak forest is more resilient in terms of habitat structure (canopy, understory, and complexity of vegetation strata) than pine plantation. By contrast, both woodland types show similar resilience in plant species composition. Resilience in habitat structure varies between the two woodland types because of the resprouting and seeding strategies of cork oak and pine species, respectively. These differences can be relevant for the conservation of biodiversity of forested ecosystems in a future scenario of increased fire frequency and scale in the Mediterranean basin.

Context

Wildfires have major impacts on ecosystems globally. In fire-prone regions, plant species have developed adaptive traits (resprouting and seeding) to survive and persist due to long evolutionary coexistence with fire. In the African rim of the Western Mediterranean Basin, cork oak forest and pine plantation are the most frequently burnt woodlands. Both species have different strategies to respond fire: cork oak is a resprouter while pines are mostly seeders.

Aims

We have examined the hypothesis that pine plantations are less resilient in habitat structure (canopy, understory, diversity of vegetation strata) and plant composition than cork oak woodlands.

Methods

The habitat structure and plant species composition were measured in 30 burnt and 30 unburnt 700-m transects at 12 burnt sites from north-western Africa, where the two forest types can coexist. Habitat structure and plant species composition were compared between burnt and unburnt transects from cork oak and pine plantation woodlands with generalized linear mixed models and general linear models.

Results

The results showed significant interaction effect of fire and forest type, since cork oak forest was more resilient to fire than was pine plantation in habitat structure. By contrast, both forest types were resilient to fire in the composition of the plant communities, i.e., plant composition prior to fire did not change afterwards.

Conclusion

The higher structural resilience of cork oak forest compared to pine plantation is related to the resprouting and seeding strategies, respectively, of the dominant tree species. Differences in the responses to fire need to be considered in conservation planning for the maintenance of the Mediterranean biodiversity in a future scenario of changes in fire regime.

     

Insecticidal properties of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Thymus persicus</Emphasis> essential oil against <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tribolium castaneum</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sitophilus oryzae</Emphasis>

Red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) and rice weevil Sitophilus oryzae (L.) are considered to be the major insect pests in storage. Essential oils from aromatic plants are recognized as proper alternatives to fumigants. Thymus persicus (Ronniger ex Rech. f.) is one of these plants that have medicinal properties and is indigenous to Iran. The essential oil was obtained from aerial parts of the plant and analyzed by GC and GC–MS. Carvacrol (44.69%) and thymol (11.05%) were the major constituents of the oil extracted. In this experiment, fumigant toxicity of the essential oil was studied against T. castaneum, S. oryzae at 27 ± 1°C and 60 ± 5% RH in dark condition. The adult insects were exposed to the concentrations of 51.9, 111.1, 207.4 and 370.4 μl/l air to estimate median lethal time (LT₅₀) values. The fumigant toxicity was increased in response to increased essential oil concentrations. The LT₅₀ values at the lowest and the highest concentrations tested were ranged from 28.09 to 13.47 h for T. castaneum, and 3.86 to 2.30 h for S. oryzae. It was found that S. oryzae adults were much more susceptible to the oil than T. castaneum. After 24 h of exposure, the LC₅₀ values (95% fiducial limit) for T. castaneum and S. oryzae were estimated to be 236.9 (186.27–292.81) and 3.34 (2.62–4.28) μl/l air, respectively. These results suggest that T. persicus essential oil merits further study as potential fumigant for the management of these stored-product insects.     

Fine root biomass and morphology of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus densiflora</Emphasis> under competitive stress by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chamaecyparis obtusa</Emphasis>

The fine root (diameter ≤2.0 mm) biomass and morphology of Japanese red pines (Pinus densiflora) grown under different aboveground conditions (i.e., high and low competitive environments) were examined in a pine–cypress mixed forest. All P. densiflora subject trees were about 40 years old, and the aboveground condition (i.e., size) of red pines appeared to be influenced by the surrounding Japanese cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa). Smaller P. densiflora exhibited lower fine root biomasses, shorter root lengths, and lower root tip densities, but longer specific root lengths and higher specific root tip densities relative to larger pines. These results suggest that P. densiflora may adjust the morphological traits of fine roots to the different conditions in biomass allocation to fine roots of individuals with different aboveground growth.     

Weed control measures in Christmas tree plantations of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Abies nordmanniana</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Abies lasiocarpa</Emphasis> on agricultural land

Abies nordmanniana and Abies lasiocarpa, established for Christmas tree production in southwestern Norway (58°44′N, 5°38′E), were treated with different weed control methods, including chemicals, use of black plastic mulch, grass or clover as ground cover, living mulch and mechanical hoeing. Ground cover with black plastic mulching resulted in the best growth and quality in A. lasiocarpa; the least favourable treatment was when grasses were allowed to grow close to the trees. Unless measures were taken to remove this competing vegetation, the ground cover grew over the trees, smothering 94% of them. A. nordmanniana plants grew to the same height on plots with no weed control as on plots with thorough weed eradication. Stem diameter decreased on plots with ground vegetation compared to seedlings grown in the weed-free environment. The use of Trifolium repens as ground cover decreased height growth by 30% compared to thorough weed control. Both grasses and clover sown as living mulch, damaged the trees more than did natural weed vegetation.     

Bioremediation of CCA-treated wood by brown-rot fungi <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fomitopsis palustris</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Coniophora puteana</Emphasis>, and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Laetiporus sulphureus</Emphasis>

This study evaluated oxalic acid accumulation and bioremediation of chromated copper arsenate (CCA)-treated wood by three brown-rot fungi Fomitopsis palustris, Coniophora puteana, and Laetiporus sulphureus. The fungi were first cultivated in a fermentation broth to accumulate oxalic acid. Bioremediation of CCA-treated wood was then carried out by leaching of heavy metals with oxalic acid over a 10-day fermentation period. Higher amounts of oxalic acid were produced by F. palustris and L. sulphureus compared with C. puteana. After 10-day fermentation, oxalic acid accumulation reached 4.2 g/l and 3.2 g/l for these fungi, respectively. Fomitopsis palustris and L. sulphureus exposed to CCA-treated sawdust for 10 days showed a decrease in arsenic of 100% and 85%, respectively; however, C. puteana remediation removed only 18% arsenic from CCA-treated sawdust. Likewise, chromium removal in F. palustris and L. sulphureus remediation processes was higher than those for C. puteana. This was attributed to low oxalic acid accumulation. These results suggest that F. palustris and L. sulphureus remediation processes can remove inorganic metal compounds via oxalic acid production by increasing the acidity of the substrate and increasing the solubility of the metals.An erratum to this article can be found at     

Enzymatic saccharification and ethanol production of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acacia mangium</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Paraserianthes falcataria</Emphasis> wood,and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Elaeis guineensis</Emphasis> trunk

We examined the saccharification and fermentation of meals from Acacia mangium wood, Paraserianthes falcataria wood, and Elaeis guineensis trunk. The levels of enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose and ethanol production were highest for P. falcataria wood and lowest for A. mangium wood. Ultrasonication pretreatment of meal further increased the rates of hydrolysis and ethanol production in meal from P. falcataria wood. Through this pretreatment, hemicelluloses (xylan and xyloglucan) and cellulose were released in the meal from P. falcataria wood. Loosening of hemicellulose associations can be expected to make P. falcataria wood more useful for bioethanol production.     

Optimal management of larch (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Larix olgensis</Emphasis> A. Henry) plantations in Northeast China when timber production and carbon stock are considered

? Key message

The optimal management of larch (Larix olgensis) plantations in Northeast China consisted of 2 or 3 thinnings and a rotation length of 55–61 years when economic profitability, wood production, and carbon sequestration were simultaneously maximized. Wood production ranged from 5.4 to 11.7 m³ ha^?1 a^?1, depending on site quality.

? Context

L. olgensis is an important tree species in the northeast forest region of China, playing a significant role in the establishment of fast-growing and high-yielding plantation forests in China. However, the management of these plantations has not been optimized in previous studies.

? Aims

The objective of the study was to find the optimal combinations of thinning times, thinning types, and rotation length for L. olgensis stands when both timber production and carbon stock are considered.

? Methods

First, a growth and yield model was developed to simulate the dynamics of larch plantations. Then, the models were linked with the Hooke and Jeeves optimization algorithm to optimize forest management for two commonly used planting densities and three site qualities.

? Results

Two thinnings were found to be suitable for larch plantations when the stand density at 10 years was 2125 trees/ha (corresponding to a planting density of 2500 trees/ha) whereas three thinnings were recommended when the density at 10 years was 2800 trees/ha (planting density of 3300 trees/ha). When the stand density was 2800 trees/ha, the optimal rotation length was 61, 58, and 55 years for site indices (SI) 12, 16, and 20 m (dominant height at 30 years), respectively. The mean annual wood production was 5.4 m³ ha^?1 for SI 12, 8.2 m³ ha^?1 for SI 16, and 11.7 m³ ha^?1 for SI 20. The results were nearly the same for the lower initial stand density. The better the site quality of the stand, the earlier the thinnings were conducted.

? Conclusion

In multifunctional forestry, optimal rotation lengths of larch plantations were 10–20 years longer than advised in the current silvicultural recommendations for Northeast China.

     

Selective herbicides for establishment of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eucalyptus benthamii</Emphasis> plantations

Competition control is essential for successful eucalyptus plantation establishment, yet few selective herbicides have been identified. Five herbicides, flumioxazin, imazamox, imazapic, oxyfluorfen, and sulfometuron methyl, were evaluated at either pre- or post-weed emergence timing for selective weed control in the establishment of Eucalyptus benthamii, a frost-tolerant species showing promise for commercial plantations in the southeastern United States and southern Brazil. Herbicides were applied at two or three rates and compared to a non-treated control and to near-complete weed control obtained with repeated glyphosate directed sprays. Herbicides were most efficacious when applied prior to weed emergence, at 2 weeks after planting 16-week-old containerized eucalyptus seedlings. Pre-emergence imazapic treatments resulted in broad-spectrum and persistent weed control, with 77–82% bare-ground at 60 days after treatment, but both pre- and post-emergence applications of imazapic caused excessive eucalyptus injury at the highest rate tested. Imazapic, sulfometuron, and imazamox were most effective for grass control. Both timings of flumioxazin were effective for forb control at the early assessment. All pre-emergence treatments enhanced stem volume compared to the non-treated control, but post-emergence treatments did not, suggesting the need for early weed control to facilitate E. benthamii growth. Pre-emergence applications of medium and high sulfometuron, low imazapic, high imazamox, and high oxyfluorfen rates increased stem volume four-fold to six-fold compared to the non-treated control. Repeated glyphosate directed sprays increased stem volume nearly three-fold compared to the control. These results confirm one early report of flumioxazin effectiveness and identify imazamox and imazapic as new selective herbicides for eucalyptus culture.