Securing Garbage from Florida Black Bears: Why are the Appropriate Measures Not Implemented at the Municipal Level?

Anthropogenic food conditioning of bears has resulted in recent increases in human–bear conflicts (HBCs) in Florida. Garbage is the leading cause of food conditioning of bears. Despite increased HBCs and related human safety concerns, municipal governments in Florida have generally not taken independent steps to prevent HBCs through altered garbage management. Rather, governments have relied on the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission to manage garbage-related HBCs. We used semi-structured interviews to identify obstacles to securing garbage from bears at the municipal level. Respondents included local government administrations and waste service providers. Political and economic costs of implementing bear-resistant garbage management practices were the major obstacles to securing garbage. Respondents argued that households will not pay for, or support, the implementation of bear-resistant trash cans. Recent adoption by four counties of ordinances requiring residents to secure their garbage from bears suggests that objections to adopting bear-resistant garbage management were overstated.     

Clostridium botulinum and bio-compost. A contribution to the analysis of potential health hazards caused by bio-waste recycling

Bio-waste recycling and the production and use of bio-compost are politically encouraged in Europe. Quality control takes no consideration of pathogenic anaerobic spore formers, e.g. Clostridium botulinum. A protocol for health hazard analysis concerning this pathogen has been developed. Samples of marketed bio-compost were tested and results showed that about 50% of the tested samples contained C. botulinum. For the first time it has been shown that the use of bio-compost represents a health hazard to humans and animals, especially in the future when spores will have accumulated in the environment. The use of household bio-waste collected in 'bio-bins' is apparently one factor involved in the production of contaminated compost end-products. Environmental factors in the propagation of C. botulinum are discussed. The improvement of bio-waste recycling technology and management should be encouraged in order to minimize the health hazard caused by contaminated bio-compost.     

Exposure of rabbits to spores of Aspergillus fumigatus or Penicillium sp: survival of fungi and microscopic changes in the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts.

Rabbits were exposed to spores of Aspergillus fumigatus by 1 of 2 routes: exposure to aerosols of dry spores or introduction of liquid suspensions of spores directly into the stomach. Rabbits also were exposed to aerosols containing spores of a Penicillium sp. Cultural and microscopic examinations of tissues from the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts indicated fungi were distributed throughout the gastrointestinal tract of the rabbits within 1 hour after exposure to aerosols of A fumigatus or Penicillum spores. Viable A fumigatus and Penicillium were detected in lung tissues of rabbits for 2 or 3 weeks after inhalation of spores. Aspergillus fumigatus was isolated from the gastrointestinal tract no more than 1 week after aerosol exposure, and Penicillium, not beyond 48 hours. However, when large numbers of A fumigatus spores were introduced directly into the stomach, fungi were isolated from tissues for as long as 16 days after exposure even though the intestinal contents were negative 4 to 7 days after introduction of spores. Tests for precipitating antibody were negative, with one exception, among 26 rabbits surviving for 2 weeks or more. Microscopic changes were more pronounced in rabbits exposed to spores of A fumigatus than in rabbits exposed to Penicillium spores.     

捕食线虫性真菌的分离培养技术与形态学

分离培养捕食线虫性真菌的最佳培养基为 0 .4g/ L 玉米粉琼脂培养基 (CMA) ;0 .4g/ L 玉米粉液体培养基可作为保存菌种培养基。在分离培养过程中 ,必须加入活的线虫第 3期幼虫 ,以诱导菌株产生捕食性器官——菌环、菌网 ,并与其他真菌鉴别。捕食线虫性真菌有菌丝和孢子 2种形态 ,其发育时期不同。本试验分离的少孢节丛孢菌(Arthrobotrys oligospora) ,菌丝发达 ,无色有隔 ,隔距不等 ;分生孢子梗直立不分支 ,分生孢子围绕着分生孢子梗呈轮状排列 ,似梅花瓣状 ,2层以上 ;孢子呈倒卵形 ,丰满无色 ,有横隔 ,游离端大而钝圆 ,梗端小而稍尖。     

降解羽毛角蛋白制备小肽的丝状真菌的分离及筛选

采用富集分离筛选法,从长期堆积羽毛废弃物的8个土样中富集分离到8株能够在以羽毛粉为主要碳、硫以及氮源的固体培养基上产生透明蛋白溶解圈的细菌和2株真菌,经过2次摇瓶复筛,分别通过测定发酵液中可溶性蛋白的含量和肽键的水解度的变化,最后筛得1株能够有效将羽毛角蛋白水解成小肽和氨基酸的丝状真菌F2,结果表明:F2菌株在30℃,120r/min条件下,液态发酵羽毛粉,60h后发酵液中可溶性蛋白的含量可达到739.40mg/L,羽毛粉失重率达83.8%,水解度达到30.90%。     

Efficiency of feeding <Emphasis Type="Italic">Duddingtonia flagrans</Emphasis> chlamydospores to control nematode parasites of first-season grazing goats in France

A field trial, conducted over two consecutive years, was aimed at assessing the efficacy of the administration of spores of the nematophagous fungus Duddingtonia flagrans to young goats for the control of nematode parasite infections on a French commercial dairy goat flock. For both years, the first-year grazing kids were divided into two similarly managed groups (fungus and control groups): in 2003 a daily dose rate of 5 × 10⁵ spores/kg body weight was given to the fungus-group animals, while in 2004 a daily dose rate of 10⁶ spores/kg body weight was used; the other half of the kids, acting as control, did not receive the spores. Parameters measured every 3 weeks included nematode egg excretion, larval development in faecal cultures and pasture larval counts. Additionally, at the beginning, the middle and the end of each grazing season, the goats were weighed and blood samples for pepsinogen determination were collected. In 2003, similar results were recorded for all the measured parameters in the control and fungus groups. In contrast, in 2004, the kids receiving the spores showed lower faecal egg counts and pepsinogen levels at the end of the season and higher growth rate compared to kids of the control group.     

Capability of the nematode-trapping fungus Duddingtonia flagrans to reduce infective larvae of gastrointestinal nematodes in goat feces in the southeastern United States: dose titration and dose time interval studies

Infection with gastrointestinal nematodes, particularly Haemonchus contortus, is a major constraint to goat production in the southeastern United States. Non-anthelmintic control alternatives are needed due to increasing resistance of these nematodes to available anthelmintics. Two studies were completed in Central Georgia in August 1999, and April–May 2000, using Spanish does naturally infected with Haemonchus contortus, Trichostongylus colubriformis, and Cooperia spp. to evaluate effectiveness of nematode-trapping fungi as a biological control agent. In the first experiment, five levels of Duddingtonia flagrans spores were mixed with a complete diet and fed once daily to the does (three per treatment) in metabolism crates. The treatment concentrations were (1) 5×10⁵, (2) 2.5×10⁵, (3) 10⁵, and (4) 5×10⁴ spores per kilogram body weight (BW), and (5) no spores. Fungal spores were fed for the first 7 days of the 14-day trial, and fecal samples were collected daily from individual animals for analysis of fecal egg count and establishment of fecal cultures. Efficacy of the fungus at reducing development of infective larvae (L3) in the fecal cultures was evaluated. The mean reduction in L3 from day 2 of the treatment period until the day after treatment stopped (days 2–8) was 93.6, 80.2, 84.1, and 60.8% for animals given the highest to lowest spore doses, respectively. Within 3–6 days after termination of fungal spore feedings, reduction in L3 development was no longer apparent in any of the treated animals. In a second experiment, effectiveness of 2.5×10⁵ spores of D. flagrans per kilogram BW fed to does every day, every second day, and every third day was evaluated. Reduction in L3 development by daily feeding was less in the second experiment than in the first experiment. Daily fungal spore feeding provided more consistent larval reduction than intermittant feeding (every second or third day). When fed daily under controlled conditions, D. flagrans was effective in significantly reducing development of L3 and appears to be an effective tool for biocontrol of parasitic nematodes in goats.     

Immunology of fungal infections in animals

The nature of immunity to fungal infection is discussed predominantly for mammals and birds. T-cell-mediated immunity seems essential for recovery both from cutaneous and mucosal infections (Candida, Malassezia and dermatophytes) and from infections of systemic fungal pathogens (Cryptococcus, Blastomyces, Histoplasma, and Coccidioides). Often chronic progressive disease caused by these fungi is associated with a depression or absence of T-cell-mediated immunity to antigens of the infecting fungus. In contrast recovery from disease, or absence of clinical disease after exposure to these fungi, is associated with the presence of strong T-cell-mediated immune responses to the fungus. The activation of macrophages and the stimulation of epidermal growth and keratinization are the processes induced by T-cell-mediated immunity which result in the resolution of systemic or cutaneous and mucosal disease. Other cell types, for example NK cells and PMNs (polymorphonuclear leucocytes), may be important in these diseases in reducing the effective amount of inoculum to which an animal is exposed and thereby reducing the likelihood of disseminated disease. Invasive opportunistic fungi (Candida, Aspergillus, Mucorales) are resisted by PMNs which attach to the hyphae or pseudohyphae and damage them via an extracellular mechanism. Other host cell types may be important in natural resistance, fungal spores being handled by the macrophages which, under conditions when animals are not immunosuppressed, are likely to be an effective first line of defense. Subcutaneous pathogens and miscellaneous other fungal diseases are discussed from a point of view of host immunity and immunodiagnosis. Vaccine development for ringworm and for other mycoses is discussed.     

Biological control of helminths in grazing animals using nematophagous fungi

For the last 50 years the control of gastro-intestinal nematodes (GIN) in grazing animals has almost entirely been alleviated by the use of anthelmintics. Due to development of resistance against the drugs, especially in the GIN of sheep and goats it has become necessary to develop new, innovative strategies such as the use of nematode destroying fungi. Despite experiments to employ various species against plant and animal parasitic nematodes were already attempted in the 1930's, it was not until the 1990's when selection by simulating passage through the gastro-intestinal tract of cattle led to isolation of the fungus Duddingtonia flagrans that a major breakthrough was achieved. This fungus, producing sticky three-dimensional network and now isolated world-wide, is special due to its capacity to prolifically produce high numbers of thick-walled resting spores, chlamydospores. These spores survive passage through the gastro-intestinal tract of grazing livestock and are capable of growing and subsequently trap nematodes, including larval stages of parasitic nematodes. The great potential of this fungus as a biological control agent has been demonstrated through numerous trials with cattle, sheep, horses, and pigs. But these trials have also pointed towards some potential limitations in the activity spectrum of the fungus (Dictyocaulus, Nematodirus) beside the whole group of parasites spreading through infective stages protected inside resistant eggs (e.g. Ascaris, Trichuris). So far, in the few reported studies conducted, no negative environmental impact has been found, but it is important that further studies are conducted on this important issue. Although the potential use of D. flagrans chlamydospores has been verified through numerous trials it is necessary to develop practical delivery systems such as slow release devices, feed-blocks or similar to be able to implement this tool in future integrated control strategies. Such control strategies could include the use of biological control, grazing management, smart use of existing drugs, parasite resistant animal breeds, bioactive forages, and possibly vaccines.     

In vitro degradation of equine keratin by dermatophytes and other keratinophilic fungi

Keratinolytic properties of two dermatophytes (Microsporum gypseum, Trichophyton mentagrophytes) and three moulds (Scopulariopsis brevicaulis, Alternaria alternata, Geotrichum candidum) isolated from diseased equine hooves were examined to improve the understanding of pathogenic mechanisms leading to equine onychomycosis. Equine hoof horn material and skin, as well as hoof keratin and dermal keratin extracted from corresponding tissues, were used as sole carbon and nitrogen sources in five test tubes for each fungus. Within 18 days, supernatants of all tubes were repeatedly examined for keratinolytic activity by SDS-PAGE and Western blot analysis. In addition, fungal growth rates were determined to identify the preferred tissue of the individual fungi. Among the fungi examined, M. gypseum was the most keratinolytic species, followed by T. mentagrophytes and S. brevicaulis. In the concentration applied, the moulds A. alternata and G. candidum showed minimal keratinolytic activity. With respect to growth rates, M. gypseum favoured hoof horn material, S. brevicaulis and G. candidum preferred skin as a keratin source, whereas for the other two fungi no clear preference was detectable.     

捕食线虫性真菌--少孢节丛孢菌体外杀寄生性线虫幼虫的研究

对捕食线虫性真菌——少孢节丛孢菌(Arthrobotrys oligospora)菌株体外粪便捕杀马寄生性线虫幼虫进行了研究。结果表明：菌株可以在体外粪便中发育并发挥其捕食作用。在实验室条件下，其对寄生性线虫第一、二期幼虫的作用与对第三期幼虫的作用相比较．捕获致死速度快。菌株对马粪便中线虫幼虫的杀虫率高达98．7％；与对照组相比有显著差异。而且加入粪便的分生孢子数量在达到一定阈值后，再加入分生孢子，则杀虫率不再增加。此结论对捕食线虫性真菌今后临床的应用具有实际指导意义。     

Efficacy of an Arthrobotrys oligospora N mutant in nematode-trapping larvae after passage through the digestive tract of sheep

For oral applications, biocontrol of animal parasitic nematodes in ruminants, ion beam implanted nematode-trapping fungi must have the capacity to survive the passage through the digestive tract and be efficient in reducing infective larvae of nematodes in the faeces.Ion beams induced mutation in the spores of nematode-trapping Arthrobotrys oligospora. Mutants with genetic stability were bred. The fungi were cultured in bottles with corn kernels as growth media, and spores of different doses were, respectively, administered orally to each group of sheep naturally infected with gastrointestinal nematodes. The control group did not receive fungi. The faeces of these experimental animals were collected and faecal cultivations carried out. The fungal germination, growth, reproduction and predation of livestock parasitic nematode larvae were tested in laboratory. The efficacy of an A. oligospora N mutant in nematode-trapping larvae after passage through the digestive tract of sheep was tested. The results indicated that the ion beam implantation induced mutation of the nematode-trapping fungi is a positive mutation. The mutant spores through the digestive tract of sheep can kill livestock parasite nematode larvae in vitro. These results indicate the potential of the A. oligospora N mutant as a biological control agent for sheep nematodes.This study showed that such biotechnology could be explored for improving the effectiveness of the use of fungal infections to control livestock parasitic nematodes. This work represents the first application of nematode-trapping fungi in eukaryotic microorganisms.     

桑平疹干枯病的研究

桑平疹干枯病(Massaria mori Miyake)是一种桑树的枝干病害,在浙江省分布较广,为害较重,发病率最高可达100％。经研究发现,本病菌存在无性时期,在PSA培养基中能形成分生孢子器,厚垣孢子以及有性时期的子囊和子囊孢子。明确了本病菌的分类地位应隶属于子囊菌亚门,腔菌纲、格孢腔菌目、格孢腔菌科。本病的发生和寄主、病原的生态环境有关,接种发病率分别为30％,60％。因品种不同,形成愈伤组织有差异,直接影响变色部分的长短。本病菌在越冬后,于次年3月引起初次侵染,均从伤口侵入,一年内有重复感染。完成本病菌的生活史需要35—58天,接种潜育期一般为18天。在12月低温8℃时,子囊孢子萌芽率仅1.5％,故桑树整枝宜在1月份低温时进行。     

玉米连作对土壤微生物和土壤主要养分的影响

为确定河西地区玉米（Zea mays）连作的主要障碍因子,对不同连作年限的玉米田土壤微生物种群和土壤主要养分进行了常规分析。结果表明,在0～20 cm土层深处,细菌随连作年限增加呈递减趋势,与速效磷和有机质含量呈显著正相关,即速效磷和有机质均随连作年限的增加而显著减少（P<0.01）;而真菌数量随连作年限的增加而增加,与速效磷和有机质含量呈显著负相关;放线菌数量在不同连作年限呈先增后减的趋势;碱解氮和速效钾在不同连作年限没有明显的变化规律。说明玉米连作导致土壤微生物种群结构失衡,有益微生物数量减少,土壤真菌化现象严重,积累了大量植物病原菌,造成土壤主要养分减少,病害发生严重。     

生态环境因子对AM真菌孢子形成与分布的作用机制

在自然土壤生态系统中,丛枝菌根(AM)真菌孢子的数量与菌根共生体的形成和分布具有密切的相关性,关注AM真菌孢子的形成与分布机制对于揭示菌根共生体的生态学功能具有重要意义。其中,探究外界环境因子对孢子分布的影响已经成为当前菌根生态学研究的热点问题之一。研究表明,影响孢子形成和分布的因素主要包括气候因子、土壤理化因子、草食动物、宿主植物种类以及耕作制度等。气候因子和季节动态是决定AM真菌孢子形成和分布的主要因子,它通过对AM真菌的直接作用,或者是通过对宿主植物的间接作用影响AM真菌的侵染、产孢和分布;土壤是孢子的天然培养基,土壤理化性状影响孢子分布的要素主要有土壤类型、pH值、土壤湿度、通透性、营养元素含量以及土壤微生物等;宿主植物类型、草食动物和农业耕作措施通过对菌丝体的作用影响AM真菌孢子的群落动态。基于此,本研究围绕以上生态环境因子及其相互协同作用对AM真菌孢子形成和分布的作用机制进行了论述,并就未来AM真菌孢子的群落动态研究进行了展望。     

东祁连山高寒草地土壤产漆酶真菌的筛选、鉴定及产酶条件的初步研究

以高寒草地土壤分离出的56个真菌菌株为研究对象,经愈创木酚-PDA培养基和α-萘酚-PDA选择性培养基初步筛选, 再根据菌株在愈创木酚、邻苯二酚、邻苯甲苯胺为底物的选择性培养基上菌体生长及菌落大小、漆酶催化氧化还原反应产生的变色圈直径大小及其变色圈颜色深浅程度,以及测定油菜秸秆诱导的液体发酵产漆酶活力,筛选出1株产漆酶酶活真菌菌株(编号为310b)。经rDNA-ITS基因序列分析,初步鉴定为Marasmius tricolor。对菌株310b产漆酶的条件进行了初步研究,结果表明,菌株310b在25℃培养条件下产漆酶活力最大,初始pH值为4.0时,漆酶活力最大,蔗糖、蛋白胨分别为诱导菌株产漆酶活力最高的碳、氮源。几种非营养有机物对菌株产漆酶活力大小不同,α-萘酚和吐温-80对菌株产漆酶没有明显影响,愈创木酚、单宁酸、吲哚乙酸抑制菌株产漆酶,其中吲哚乙酸抑制作用最强烈(P＜0.01)。在Cu²⁺浓度为0.001~0.025 g/L范围内,随Cu²⁺增加,产漆酶活力增加,0.025 g/L时产酶活力最大。随着接种量的增加,诱导漆酶活力增加。在60~180 r/min的转速范围内,随着转速的增加,漆酶活力增加。油菜秸秆粉的量在0~1 g范围内,随着秸秆添加量的增加,漆酶活力增加;1~2 g范围内,随着秸秆添加量的增加,漆酶活力减小。     

Biological control of nematode parasites of small ruminants in Malaysia using the nematophagous fungus Duddingtonia flagrans

Control of nematode parasites of small ruminants in a wet, tropical environment using the nematophagous fungus, Duddingtonia flagrans, was assessed in this study. Two methods of fungal delivery were tested, namely as a daily feed supplement, or incorporated into feed blocks. Initially, pen trials were conducted with individually penned groups of sheep and goats at dose rates of 125,000 spores and 250,000 spores/kg live weight per day. At the lower dose rate this reduction was between 80 and 90% compared with the pre-treatment levels. At the higher dose rate, there was virtually complete suppression (>99% reduction) of larval recovery. Trials using the fungal feed blocks, showed that when animals were individually penned, they consumed only small amounts of the block (particularly goats), hence little effect on larval recovery in faecal cultures was observed. Grouping animals according to species and dose rate induced satisfactory block consumption and subsequent high levels of larval reduction in faecal cultures. These larval reductions were mirrored by the presence of fungus in faecal cultures. This work was followed by a small paddock trial, whereby three groups of sheep were fed either a feed supplement without fungal spores, supplement with spores, or offered fungal blocks. The dose rate of spores in the latter two groups was 500,000 spores/kg live weight per day. Egg counts were significantly reduced in the two fungal groups, compared with the control group and the latter required two salvage anthelmintic treatments to prevent mortality due to haemonchosis. Pasture larval numbers on the two fungal group plots were also much lower than on the control plot.     

不同温、湿度下球孢白僵菌Bb00菌株的生长状况及对桑天牛的致病力研究

球孢白僵菌(Beauveria bassiana)可作为多种农业害虫的真菌杀虫剂。研究测定了不同温、湿度条件对球孢白僵菌Bb00菌株的营养生长、孢子萌发率以及对桑天牛(Apriona germari)幼虫致病力的影响。结果表明:25℃时该菌株营养生长最好,孢子萌发速度快且萌发率高,在此温度下菌株对桑天牛幼虫的致病力也最强;相对湿度为95%～100%时菌株的营养生长最好,随着相对湿度的增大孢子萌发速度、萌发率也增高,相对湿度100%时达到最高,此时被该菌株感染的桑天牛幼虫的死亡速度快,死亡率也最高。     

产漆酶真菌对高寒草甸土壤有机质矿化特性的研究

为了了解产漆酶微生物真菌对高寒草甸土壤有机质的矿化作用及其特性,实验采用室内密闭静置培养法,对添加产漆酶真菌Marasmius tricolor 310b发酵粗酶液对高寒草甸土壤生物活性有机碳库的影响进行了研究。结果表明：与对照组相比,添加产漆酶真菌Marasmius tricolor 310b发酵粗酶液后,在整个培养期内土壤CO₂释放量和微生物生物量碳含量随培养时间的延长,呈现不断下降的趋势,35 d后趋于稳定;在整个培养周期,微生物呼吸熵的变化总体呈对数降低趋势,处理组符合方程y=-9.964ln （x）+32.281（R²=0.9744）,对照组符合方程y=-9.788ln （x）+28.683（R²=0.95）,处理组土壤CO₂的累计释放量始终高于对照组（P<0.05）,说明菌株310b促进了土壤有机质矿化作用。土壤有机碳含量在培养前期开始降低,但差异不显著,15 d后处理组的土壤有机碳含量低于对照组（P<0.05）,说明不同阶段产漆酶真菌对有机质的周转速率不同,推测产漆酶真菌对有机质的转化作用与土壤环境条件有关。     

Measures for lessening the mycotoxin formation and concentration in feed

Procedures for lowering the production of mycotoxins in cereals before harvest are not available. Breeding of cereal varieties which are resistant to fusaria is a promising approach. Development of storage fungi and fusaria after harvest can be inhibited by drying with warm or ambient air, refrigerated storage, chemical preservation (e.g. by propionic acid, urea), and airtight storage. For the quantitative determination of fungal growth in feedstuffs a chemical indicator such as ergosterol must be determined. A preservation procedure can be regarded as effective only if it is able to inhibit mold growth completely. This is concluded from the observation that an initial toxin-free phase of growth which has been found in mold cultures with liquid medium could not be detected during refrigerated storage of wheat. Under these conditions the production of ochratoxin A and other mycotoxins by Penicillium strains started simultaneously with the production of ergosterol. For an effective ambient air drying of cereals the depth of the whole bulk and the velocity of air must afford complete drying within 8-10 days. During refrigerated storage of cereals maximal storage periods which depend on moisture content and temperature should not be exceeded. Maximal storage periods based on ergosterol determinations are described for wheat with an initial moisture content between 18 and 26% and storage temperatures of 4 and 10 degrees C. The effect of propionic acid concentration on the development of molds is described, recommendations for selecting optimal acid dosages are given.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)