Significance of Wheat Flour Particle Size on Sponge Cake Baking Quality

We evaluated the effect and magnitude of flour particle size on sponge cake (SC) baking quality. Two different sets of wheat flours, including flours of reduced particle size obtained by regrinding and flour fractions of different particle size separated by sieving, were tested for batter properties and SC baking quality. The proportion of small particles (<55 μm) of flour was increased by 11.6–26.9% by regrinding. Despite the increased sodium carbonate solvent retention capacity, which was probably a result of the increased starch damage and particle size reduction, reground flour exhibited little change in density and viscosity of flour‐water batter and produced SC of improved volume by 0.8–15.0%. The volume of SC baked from flour fractions of small (<55 μm), intermediate (55–88 μm), and large (>88 μm) particles of soft and club wheat was in the range of 1,353–1,450, 1,040–1,195, and 955–1,130 mL, respectively. Even with comparable or higher protein content, flour fractions of intermediate particle size produced larger volume of SC than flour fractions of large particle size. The flour fractions of small particle size in soft white and club wheat exhibited lower flour‐water batter density (102.6–105.9 g/100 mL) than did those of large and intermediate particle fractions (105.2–108.2 g/100 mL). The viscosity of flour‐water batter was lowest in flour fractions of small particle size, higher in intermediate particles, and highest in large particles. Flour particle size exerted a considerable influence on batter density and viscosity and subsequently on SC volume and crumb structure. Fine particle size of flour overpowered the negative effects of elevated starch damage, water absorption, and protein content in SC baking.     

Influence of Amylose Content on Cookie and Sponge Cake Quality and Solvent Retention Capacities in Wheat Flour

Reduced amylose wheat (Triticum æstivum L.) produces better quality noodles and bread less prone to going stale, while little is known about the relationships between amylose content and the quality of soft wheat baking products such as sugar snap cookies (SSC) and Japanese sponge cakes (JSC). Near‐isogenic lines developed from wheat cultivar Norin 61, differing in their level of granule‐bound starch synthase (Wx protein) activity, were used to produce wheat grains and ultimately flours of different amylose contents. These were tested with regard to their effect on soft wheat baking quality and solvent retention capacities (SRC). Amylose content was strongly correlated to cookie diameter (r = 0.969, P < 0.001) and cake volume (r = 0.976, P < 0.001), indicating that the soft wheat baking quality associated with SSC diameter and JSC volume were improved by an incremental increases in amylose content. Among the four kinds of SRC tests (water, sodium carbonate, sucrose and lactic acid), the water SRC test showed the highest correlation with amylose content, SSC diameter, and JSC volume. When the regression analysis was conducted between the nonwaxy and partial waxy isogenic lines that are available in commercial markets, only water SRC was significantly correlated to amylose content (r = –0.982, P < 0.001) among of four SRC tests. This suggests that, unlike udon noodle quality, high‐amylose content is indispensable in improving soft wheat baking quality, a process requiring less water retention capacity.     

Improvement of Sponge Cake Baking Test Procedure for Simple and Reliable Estimation of Soft White Wheat Quality

The sponge cake baking test is accepted and routinely used as a standard quality evaluation tool of soft white wheat for Asian markets, but its lengthy and laborious procedure makes it unsuitable for the routine evaluation of a large number of wheat breeding lines. We simplified the sponge cake baking procedure in the egg‐whipping step and improved its consistency by replacement of the hand mixing of cake batter with mechanical mixing, using a wire whisk or a BeaterBlade paddle. Egg whipping and mechanical batter mixing conditions were optimized by comparing foam density, sponge cake volume, and crumb grain to those obtained by the conventional procedure. Foam density, sponge cake volume, and crumb grain comparable to the conventional 100 g flour procedure were obtained with modifications, including extension of whipping time without heat input using a 5 L KitchenAid mixer, one‐time water addition at 3 min before the completion of egg whipping instead of twice, as in the conventional procedure, and cake batter mixing with a KitchenAid wire whisk or a BeaterBlade paddle. For baking a 50 g flour cake, egg foam of appropriate density was obtained with increased whipping speed and shortened egg‐whipping time (8 min). The modified sponge cake baking procedure yielded egg‐foam density, cake volume, and crumb grain similar to the conventional procedure and effectively differentiated soft wheat flours of different quality. Sponge cake volume of 14 soft white wheat flours ranged from 1,134 to 1,426 mL with the conventional procedure, from 1,113 to 1,333 mL with the modified procedure of batter mixing with a wire whisk, from 1,108 to 1,360 mL with the modified procedure of batter mixing with a BeaterBlade paddle, and from 577 to 719 mL with the modified method of 50 g of flour and batter mixing with a wire whisk. The modified methods with the BeaterBlade paddle and wire whisk exhibited significant correlation in cake volume with a conventional procedure (r = 0.931, P < 0.001 and r = 0.925, P < 0.001, respectively).     

Prediction of Specific Japanese Sponge Cake Volume Using Pasting Properties of Flour

In Japanese soft wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) breeding programs, protein content (PC), and specific surface area (SSA) of flour have been used as important factors for the baking quality of Japanese sponge cake. We proposed batter pasting viscosity (BPV) as a parameter to predict the baking quality of Japanese sponge cake. BPV was measured using a Rapid Visco‐Analyser (RVA) with a modified heating profile. Twenty soft wheat samples from the 2006‐07 season and 22 from the 2007‐08 season, including Japanese soft wheat cultivars, advanced breeders' lines, and Western White (WW) imported from the United States, were milled and evaluated for solvent retention capacity (SRC) values of four solvents, batter pasting properties, flour pasting properties, PC, SSA, and specific cake volume (SCV) to investigate their relationships. BPV was the most strongly correlated of the parameters to SCV (r = –0.90, P < 0.001). Stepwise multiple regression analysis selected BPV and minimum viscosity (MV) of flour pasting as significant independent variables to predict SCV (corrected R² = 0.848). The variability in BPV related to cake batter expansion was highly explained by PC and sucrose SRC (corrected R² = 0.854, P < 0.001). MV was correlated to SSA (r = 0.56, P < 0.001) and might be related to the prevention of sponge cake shrinkage during baking.     

Effect of Isomaltooligosaccharide Syrup on Quality Characteristics of Sponge Cake

Sponge cakes were formulated using isomaltooligosaccharide (IMO) syrup as a sweetener to replace 0, 25, 50, 75, and 100% sucrose. The qualities of cakes were evaluated by physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory evaluation analyses. The viscosity in cake batter, cake volume, crumb Hunter a value, and IMO contents of baked cakes increased with increasing IMO syrup level, whereas the specific gravity in cake batter, crust L a b, and crumb L and b values, and hardness of baked cakes showed a reverse trend. The crust and crumb of cakes became darker and less yellow and had a better tender and less sweet texture as IMO syrup level increased and sucrose decreased. The degree of overall liking of cakes increased with increasing IMO syrup level. Total plate counts exceeded 10⁵ CFU/g for cakes stored at 25°C for three days and <10³ CFU/g for the samples stored at 5°C for seven days. The changes in the moisture content, water activity, L a b values, and IMO contents of samples did not differ during storage. Overall, sucrose in the formulation of sponge cakes could be partially or fully replaced with IMO syrup.     

Rheological and Sensory Evaluation of Wheat Flour Tortillas During Storage

Texture of wheat flour tortillas over 15 days at room temperature was evaluated using an expert sensory panel, consumer panels, subjective rollability test, large deformation rheological methods (i.e., bending, extensibility [1‐D and 2‐D], and puncture tests), and stress relaxation method. Most of the changes in texture occurred during the initial 8 days of storage, while texture of tortillas changed slowly thereafter. Differences in texture between fresh and 1‐day‐old tortillas were detected by many objective rheological methods but not by either sensory panel. The expert sensory panel observed a rapid decrease in tortilla extensibility and an increase in staleness between 1 and 8 days of storage and smaller changes in sensory scores after 8 days of storage. Most objective rheological parameters changed rapidly between 0 and 5 days, and slowly after 5 days of storage. Significant correlations and factor analysis reveal that changes occurring in flour tortillas during staling are estimated better by subjective rollability, sensory evaluation (expert and consumer panels), and 2‐dimensional extensibility test than by other methods. Hence, some rheological methods are useful to estimate sensory properties of flour tortillas.     

Evaluation of a New Viscometer Performance in Predicting the Technological Quality of Soft Wheat Flour

Gluten aggregation properties were investigated by means of the GlutoPeak device, a viscometer recently proposed as a rapid and sensitive test for measurement of wheat flour technological performance. In this study, 62 soft wheat flour samples of different quality and end use were utilized to evaluate if the GlutoPeak parameters could adequately predict chemical and rheological characteristics of soft wheat flour dough, that is, protein content measured by the Kjeldahl method, dough strength measured by a Chopin alveograph, and dough stability and water absorption measured by a Brabender farinograph. Linear correlation analysis showed that most GlutoPeak curve parameters were strongly correlated with protein content, dough strength, and water absorption. The statistical models, obtained by a stepwise multiple regression method, showed the GlutoPeak device to be a promising tool to characterize wheat flour (R_adj² = 0.84 for protein content, R_adj² = 0.71 for dough strength, and R_adj² = 0.67 for water absorption). The rather high accuracy of the prediction models for the three mentioned parameters confirmed that GlutoPeak parameters are well correlated with other frequently used flour quality parameters and are able to describe flour technological performance.     

Effect of Growing Environment of Soft Wheats on Amylose Content and Its Relationship with Cookie and Sponge Cake Quality and Solvent Retention Capacity

The effect of growing environments of soft wheat on amylose content and its relationship with baking quality and solvent retention capacities (SRC) was investigated. Near‐isogenic soft wheat lines of Norin 61 differing in granule‐bound starch synthase (Wx protein) activity and grown in three different regions of Japan: Hokkaido (spring‐sown) for 2006 and 2007, Kanto (autumn‐sown), and Kyushu (autumn‐sown) for 2007 were evaluated. Spring‐sown samples produced grains of greater protein content (10.9–12.4%) than autumn‐sown samples (7.3–9.1%). In contrast, spring‐sown samples of 2007 with higher maturing temperature had lower amylose content (25.5% for Norin 61) compare to the autumn‐sown and spring‐sown samples of 2006 (27.6–28.4% for Norin 61). Amylose content was strongly correlated to sugar snap cookie (SSCD) diameter (r = 0.957–0.961; n = 10, all samples; P ≤ 0.001, r = 0.701–0.976; n = 7 partial waxy and nonwaxy samples; and Japanese sponge cake (JSCV) volume r = 0.971–0.993; n = 10; P≤ 0.001, r = 0.764–0.922; n = 7 partial waxy and nonwaxy samples), regardless of seeding season and growing conditions. The strength of the JSVC‐amylose relationship (slope) was similar among the three regions, whereas the strength of the SSCD‐amylose relationship was slightly weaker for spring‐sown samples and slightly stronger for partial waxy and nonwaxy autumn‐sown samples. Among of the four solvents (water, solutions of sodium carbonate, sucrose, or lactic acid), water‐SRC showed the greatest correlation to amylose content (r = –0.969 to –0.996; n = 10; P ≤ 0.001, r = –0.629 to –0.983; n = 7 partial waxy and nonwaxy samples), indicated that amylose content can be accurately estimated from the water‐SRC within the samples from the same grown environment.     

Bread Quality Relationship with Rheological Measurements of Wheat Flour Dough

The rheological properties of wheat doughs prepared from different flour types, water contents, and mixing times for a total of 20 dough systems were studied. The results were compared with the results of standard baking tests with the same factors. Water and flour type had a significant effect on storage modulus (G′) or phase angle measured by an oscillatory test both in the linear viscoelastic region and as a function of stress, and on compressional force measured as a function of time. The correlation of maximum force of dough in compression and G′ of dough measured within the linear viscoelastic region was r = 0.80. Correlation between the compression and oscillation test improved when all measuring points of the G′ stress curve were included (r = 0.88). The baking performance of the different doughs varied greatly; loaf volumes ranged from 2.9 to 4.7 mL/g. Although the water content of the dough correlated with the rheological measurements, the correlation of G′measured in the linear viscoelastic region or maximum force from stress‐time curve during compression was poor for bread loaf volumes. Mixing time from 4.5 to 15.5 min did not affect the rheological measurements. No correlation was observed with the maximum force of compression or G′ of dough measured in the linear viscoelastic region and baking performance. Good correlation of rheological measurements of doughs and baking performance was obtained when all the data points from force‐time curve and whole stress sweep (G′ as a function of stress) were evaluated with multivariate partial least squares regression. Correlation of all data points with loaf volume was r = 0.81 and 0.72, respectively, in compression and shear oscillation.     

Nutritional Profile of Whole‐Grain Soft Wheat Flour

Whole‐grain wheat flour is used in baking to increase fiber content and to provide vitamins from the bran layers of the kernel. We surveyed whole‐grain soft flour samples from North America to determine the nutritional profile using recently revised fiber quantification protocols, Codex 2009.1. Standard compositional and vitamin analyses were also included in the survey. Three separate studies were included in the survey: sampling of commercial whole‐grain soft wheat flour, a controlled study of two cultivars across three years and two locations, and a regional study of soft white and soft red grain from commercial grain production. The Codex method for fiber measurement estimated total fiber concentration in the commercial sampling at 15.1 g/100 g, dry weight basis (dwb). In the controlled research trial, the largest source of variation in total fiber concentration was attributed to year effects, followed by genotype effects. For the two locations used in this study, location effects on fiber concentration were significant but an order of magnitude less important than the year and genotype effects. The third study of regional variation within North America found limited variation for total fiber, with the resistant oligosaccharide fraction having the greatest variation in concentration. When all three studies were combined into a meta‐analysis, the average total fiber concentration was 14.8 g/100 g dwb. In the meta‐analysis, concentrations of folate, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and pyridoxine were lower than in previous summary reports. Vitamin E and pantothenic acid were the exceptions, with concentrations that were nearly identical to previous standard reports. Several other recent studies also point to current cultivars and production systems as producing lower concentrations of the essential vitamins than previously reported. The results suggest that vitamin concentrations in diets of populations using grain‐based diets from modern cereal‐production systems may require review to determine if previous assumptions of vitamin consumption are accurate.     

Laboratory Milling Method for Whole Grain Soft Wheat Flour Evaluation

Whole grain wheat products are a growing portion of the foods marketed in North America, yet few standard methods exist to evaluate whole grain wheat flour. This study evaluated two flour milling systems to produce whole grain soft wheat flour for a wire‐cut cookie, a standard soft wheat product. A short‐flow experimental milling system combined with bran grinding in a Quadro Comil produced a whole grain soft wheat flour that made larger diameter wire‐cut cookies than whole grain flour from a long‐flow experimental milling system. Average cookie diameter of samples milled on the short‐flow mill was greater than samples milled on the long‐flow system by 1 cm/two cookies (standard error 0.09 cm). The long‐flow milling system resulted in more starch damage in the flour milling than did the short‐flow system. The short‐flow milling system produced flours that were useful for discriminating among wheat cultivars and is an accessible tool for evaluating whole grain soft wheat quality.     

Exploring Functionality of Hard and Soft Wheat Flour Blends for Improved End‐Use Quality Prediction

Blending wheat or flour to meet end‐use requirements is a critical part of the production process to deliver consistent quality products. The functionality of commercial Canadian hard red wheat flour (HWF) and soft red wheat flour (SWF) blends with ratios of 100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75, and 0:100 (HWF/SWF, w/w) was investigated with new and standard methods to discern which functional properties may be indicators of bread quality and processing performance. Rheological characteristics including farinograph water absorption behavior, dough development time (DT), stability, extensigraph extensibility, and gluten aggregation of wheat flours were significantly influenced by the proportion of HWF in blends of SWF and HWF (P < 0.05). The SWF content in the blends had negative linear relationships with the protein content, lactic acid solvent retention capacity, water absorption, and GlutoPeak peak torque. Polynomial relationships were observed for sodium dodecyl sulfate sedimentation volume, DT, stability, extensibility, resistance, GlutoPeak peak time, and bread loaf volume with the amount of SWF in blends. The results indicate that linear responses may be more closely tied to protein content, whereas polynomial responses may be more indicative of protein quality and baking performance. The GlutoPeak peak time was sensitive to the addition of HWF in the blends, showing a significant change in gluten aggregation kinetics between the 0 and 25% HWF samples. Principal component analysis (PCA) confirmed that GlutoPeak peak time was a significant factor in differentiating the 0% HWF. Protein secondary structures identified in the final baked bread were also PCA factors differentiating the 0% HWF sample. Although the 0% bread sample did not deviate from the observed polynomial trend for bread loaf volume, the differences in bread protein secondary structures may translate into differences in processing tolerance in commercial settings.     

Effects of Wheat Protein Fractions on Flour Tortilla Quality

Commercial wheat protein fractions (10) were evaluated during processing for quality of tortillas prepared using pastry, tortilla, and bread flours. Protein fractions that separately modify dough resistance and extensibility were evaluated in tortillas to determine whether the proteins could increase diameter, opacity, and shelf stability. Tortillas were prepared using laboratory‐scale, commercial equipment with fixed processing parameters. Dough and tortilla properties were evaluated using analytical methods, a texture analyzer, and subjective methods. Tortillas were stored in plastic bags at 22°C for up to 20 days. Adjustments in water absorption and level of reducing agent were made to normalize differences in functionality of 3% added proteins on dough properties. Tortilla weight, moisture, pH, opacity, and specific volume were not affected by added proteins, except for glutenin and vital wheat gluten treatments, which had decreased opacity in tortillas prepared from pastry flour. Increased insoluble polymeric protein content corresponded to decreased tortilla diameter and improved shelf stability. Treatments yielding tortillas with improved shelf stability and similar tortilla properties were produced when commercially processed vital wheat gluten products, FP600, FP6000, FP5000, or gliadin were added to pastry or tortilla flour. These wheat protein fractions improved processing and tortilla quality of wheat flours, especially pastry flour, by modifying protein content and quality.     

End-Use Quality of Flour from Rhyzopertha dominica Infested Wheat

The objective of this study was to evaluate how Rhyzopertha dominica infestation of stored wheat grain affects the rheological and baking properties of bread made with the milled flour. Wheat samples were infested with R. dominica and stored for up to 180 days at room temperature. Every 45 days, samples of wheat were collected and evaluated for insect population and flour yield. Flour milled from these wheat samples was evaluated for color reflectance, pH, fat acidity, and rheological properties which were measured by a farinograph. Loaves of bread were baked using a straight-dough procedure. Volume, height, and weight of the loaves were evaluated. None of the analyses performed on the control wheat flours showed any changes during the storage period, and they were similar to the initial wheat. The insect population increased during storage of the wheat up to 90 days, and the flour yield decreased with the storage up to 180 days. Flours from insect-infested wheat absorbed more water than did flours from control wheat. Dough stability and dough development times of infested flours decreased. Bread volume showed a progressive decline throughout the storage experiment. In conclusion, flour from insect-infested wheat exhibited changes in rheological properties such as dough stability, dough development times, water absorption, and mixing stability; bread had an offensive odor; and volume and loaf characteristics were negatively affected.     

Effect of Partial Waxy Wheat on Processing and Quality of Wheat Flour Tortillas

The processing and quality of wheat flour tortillas prepared with partial waxy and normal flour were evaluated. Control procedures and formula were utilized with water absorption varied to obtain machineable doughs. Amylose content was lower in most partial waxy compared with normal wheats. The type of wheat starch did not affect most dough properties or tortilla diameter. Tortilla height and opacity were adversely affected by the decreased amount of amylose in partial waxy wheats. Sufficient leavening reactions occurred early in baking (after 10 sec) to yield an opaque disk, but some baked tortillas lost opacity and become partially transparent after baking. Starch gelatinizes, disperses, and retrogrades concurrently with the leavening reaction during the short (<30 sec) baking time. Amylose functionality during baking and cooling appears to be involved in the retention of air bubbles in tortillas.     

Wheat Tortilla Quality: Impact of Amylose Content Adjustments Using Waxy Wheat Flour

Amylose content is closely related to wheat flour pasting or thermal properties, and thus affects final food qualities. Fourteen flour blends with amylose content ranges of <1 to 29% were used to study tortilla production and quality parameters. Reduced amylose contents decreased dough stickiness and pliability; low amylose doughs were also very smooth in appearance. Very low flour amylose content was associated with earlier tortilla puffing and poor machinability during baking, darker color, low opacity, larger diameters, and reduced flexibility after storage. Tortilla texture analysis indicated that lowering amylose content gave fresh tortillas higher extensibility; after three or more days storage, however, low amylose flours required more force to break the tortillas and the rupture distances became shorter. These results, as reflected in covariate analysis, were not significantly affected by the flour blend's protein content, swelling volume/power, SDS‐sedimentation volume, mixograph dough development time, or mixograph tolerance score. Based on our observation of an initial increase in extensibility with reduced‐amylose tortillas, adding 10–20% waxy flour into wild‐type flours should be ideal for restaurant (on‐site) tortilla production or circumstances where tortillas are consumed shortly (within a day) after production. The optimal flour amylose content for hot‐press wheat tortilla products is 24–26%.     

Rheological Properties of Soft Wheat Flour Doughs: Effect of Salt and Triglycerides

The small deformation rheological properties of wheat flour doughs in relation to their structure and hydration were studied by dynamic mechanical thermal analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, and electron spin resonance. The effect of salt and triglycerides was also examined and compared with results we obtained previously on starch dispersions. Moisture content was adjusted to 48 or 60% (w/w, wb). Samples contained 0–16% NaCl (g/100 g of flour‐water) and 0–18% triolein or lard (g/100 g of flour‐water). The obtained results suggested that starch has an active role in determining the evolution of dough rheological characteristics during heating. The main factors controlling rheological behavior during thermal treatment are the volume fraction and deformability of starch granules. Gluten changes the viscoelasticity of the continuous phase and competes with starch for water. The addition of sodium chloride to flour dispersions shifted the structural disorganization and rigidity increased during heating to higher temperatures. At >7% NaCl, the reverse effect was observed. The mechanism controlling the effect of salt on dough rheological behavior was explained in terms of effect on water properties and on starch structure and hydration. Triglycerides had a lubricant effect (i.e., lowering G′ modulus) on the wheat flour dough system. These effects are of great importance for production and quality of bakery products.     

Factors in Hard Wheat Flour Responsible for Reduced Cookie Spread

Time-lapse photography showed that, during baking, the diameter of sugar-snap cookies increased linearly then suddenly became fixed. Therefore, cookie diameter was a function of spread rate and set time. Cookies made with soft wheat flour were significantly larger in diameter (184 mm) than those made with hard wheat flour (161 mm). Cookies made with soft wheat flour set later (5.8 min) during baking than those made with hard wheat flour (5.1 min). The differences in set time within cookies made with various hard wheat flours or within cookies made with various soft wheat flours appeared to be affected by flour protein content. However, other factors also affected the difference in set time between cookies made with hard wheat and soft wheat flours. Cookies made with soft wheat flour spread at a faster rate (7.8 mm/min) than those made with hard wheat flour (4.6 mm/min). The level of soluble starch in the flour appeared to cause the difference in spread rate between cookies made with hard wheat and soft wheat flour. The higher level of soluble starch in hard wheat flour (0.352 ± 0.008%) than in soft wheat flour (0.152 ± 0.030%) increased dough viscosity, thus the spread rate was slower. However, soluble starch content did not explain the differences in spread rate within cookies made with various hard wheat flours or within cookies made with various soft wheat flours.     

Influence of Soft Kernel Texture on the Flour,Water Absorption,Rheology, and Baking Quality of Durum Wheat

Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum subsp. durum ) production worldwide is substantially less than that of common wheat (T. aestivum ). Durum kernels are extremely hard; thus, most durum wheat is milled into semolina, which has limited utilization. Soft kernel durum wheat was created by introgression of the puroindoline genes via homoeologous recombination. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of the puroindoline genes and soft kernel texture on flour, water absorption, rheology, and baking quality of durum wheat. Soft Svevo and Soft Alzada, back‐cross derivatives of the durum varieties Svevo and Alzada, were compared with Svevo, a hard durum wheat, Xerpha, a soft white winter wheat, and Expresso, a hard red spring wheat. Soft Svevo and Soft Alzada exhibited soft kernel texture; low water, sodium carbonate, and sucrose solvent retention capacities (SRCs); and reduced dough water absorptions similar to soft wheat. These results indicate a pronounced effect of the puroindolines. Conversely, SDS flour sedimentation volume and lactic acid SRC of the soft durum samples were more similar to the Svevo hard durum and Expresso samples, indicating much less effect of kernel softness on protein strength measurements. Alveograph results were influenced by the inherent differences in water absorption properties of the different flours and their genetic background (e.g., W and P were markedly reduced in the Soft Svevo samples compared with Svevo, whereas the puroindolines appeared to have little effect on L ). However, Soft Svevo and Soft Alzada differed markedly for W and L . Soft durum samples produced bread loaf volumes between the soft and hard common wheat samples but larger sugar‐snap cookie diameters than all comparison samples. The soft durum varieties exhibited new and unique flour and baking attributes as well as retaining the color and protein characteristics of their durum parents.     

Baking Performance of Durum and Soft Wheat Flour in a Sponge-Dough Breadmaking Procedure

Breadmaking properties were determined for formulations that included durum, soft, and spring wheat flour, using a pound-loaf sponge-dough baking procedure. Up to 60% durum or soft wheat flour plus 10% spring wheat flour could be incorporated at the sponge stage for optimum dough-handling properties. At remix, the dough stage required 30% spring wheat flour. Bread made with 100% spring wheat flour was used as a standard for comparison. Bread made with 60% durum flour exhibited internal crumb color that was slightly yellow. When storing pound bread loaves for 72 hr, crumb moisture content remained unchanged. Crumb firmness and enthalpy increased the most in bread made with 60% soft wheat flour. Crumb firmness increased the least in bread made with 100% spring wheat flour. Enthalpy changed the least in bread made with 60% durum flour. Crumb moisture content was significantly correlated with crumb firmness (r = -0.82) and enthalpy (r = -0.65). However, crumb moisture content was specific for each type of flour and a function of flour water absorption; therefore, these correlations should be interpreted with caution. Crumb firmness and enthalpy were significantly correlated (r = 0.65). Ball-milling flour resulted in an increase in water absorption of ≈2% and in crumb moisture content of ≈0.5% but had no effect on either crumb firmness or enthalpy.