A bio-economic model of small-ruminant production in the semi-arid tropics of the Northeast region of Brazil: Part 2—Linear programming applications and results

Survey data covering production systems for mixed farms in the Northeast region of Brazil has been synthesized within a linear programming (LP) framework. The resulting model contains activities covering the production of cattle, sheep and goats, and a vector of alternative cropping activities. Farm resources include two categories of grazing land, planted forages, family labour, two categories of hired labour, and working capital. The major livestock activities represented in the region were included as production options.Initial results did not discriminate between categories of available grazing resources. Therefore, cattle, by virtue of their higher dressing percentages and higher price per kilogram, were the optimal livestock species. A series of adjustments was then carried out to reflect types of feed resources and patterns of animal species selectivity. Optimal farm solutions for a representative traditional-production unit found objective function levels close to those found by farm surveys, but discrepancies between model results and the actual farm situations for sheep and goat activities. Model results excluded small-ruminant breeding activities because of the low net offtake at weaning levels assumed in the model. Data that became available after these initial model runs showed a higher net offtake level, and these revised coefficients resulted in optimal LP results very close to those actually found on farms.The model was then used to simulate the response of activities and farm economic performance to ‘good’ and ‘bad’ years defined by ± half standard deviation from mean annual levels of precipitation. Model results indicated much higher variability of farm income in response to weather than that found with changes in levels of technical efficiency of sheep and goat production.     

Assessment of the quality of farmers’ environmental management and its effects on resource use efficiency: a Dutch case study

Most research on efficiency of farm management focuses on the relationship between an array of individual management variables and technical performance. Few studies have analysed the relationship between the total complex of farm management and technical farm performance. The present study uses the concept of strategic management and applies it to nitrogen management on Dutch arable farms. Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) was used to assess farm specific efficiency scores for fertiliser use. For a sub-sample of the farms used in the DEA analysis, the strategic management concept was addressed by means of a workshop. The management elements (objectives, internal analysis of weaknesses and strengths, external analysis of opportunities and threats, and synthesis) were made operational by relating them to the introduction of the Mineral Accounting System (MINAS) by 2001 for Dutch arable farms. The external analysis was evaluated by questions about the MINAS rules; the internal analysis was evaluated by questions on the expected consequences for the farmer's N management. An interactive simulation model evaluating whether farmers were able to choose the optimal fertilisation strategy in view of MINAS assessed the ‘quality of the synthesis’. A positive significant correlation was found between the ‘quality of the synthesis’ and N efficiency.     

Relationships between farm characteristics and the variation of the density of hedgerows at the level of a micro-region of bocage landscape. Study case in Brittany,France

In a perspective of managing the evolution of the bocage landscape, we address the issue of the joint development of agriculture and landscape at micro-regional scales. The study aims at testing the hypothesis of a relationship between bocage structure and farm characteristics along a 10-km long gradient of decreasing density of hedgerows in Brittany (France). A sample of 69 farms is made from three study sites chosen along this gradient. Dairy production with maize, cereals and grassland predominate. Farm territories are scattered along the gradient. The production, economic levels, productivity and technical means increase from the dense to the open bocage area. There is a joint significant differentiation of the technical systems. Different levels of organization of the farming systems thus contribute to this pattern. The results suggest that the nature and organization of this joint diversity are key factors to evaluate and manage future developments.     

Irrigation management for optimizing crop production and nitrate leaching on grassland

Six supplementary irrigation management options for grazed grassland were defined and their effects on both agricultural production and nitrate leaching to the groundwater were studied. Data were available from the De Marke experimental farm for sustainable dairy farming. The calibrated and validated simulation models SWACROP and ANIMO were used to calculate the effects of the different irrigation management options on crop transpiration, and on water fluxes and nitrate concentrations for three fields of the farm. Comparisons with the common practice at the farm were made. A change in application volume from 25 to 15 mm per irrigation resulted in higher irrigation efficiencies and lower annual water use for supplementary irrigation with only small changes in the ratio of actual and potential transpiration (T_a/T_p). The advisory system ‘irrigation planner’ generally also resulted in high irrigation efficiencies combined with a reduction of water use and a small effect on the transpiration ratio. The different irrigation strategies had no significant effect on nitrate concentrations in the leachate from two dry fields studied. For the relatively wet field in this study an increase of irrigation water use would improve agricultural production conditions and reduce nitrate concentrations at 1 m depth. For the evaluation of environmental effects of irrigation management options it is advised to assess the actual nitrate concentrations and not only the water fluxes, which potentially cause solute leaching.     

Perceived environmental uncertainty in Dutch dairy farming: The effect of external farm context on strategic choice

This paper explores the way in which dairy farmers perceive their environment (PE), i.e., the external context of their farm, and the uncertainty (PEU) this poses to them. The environment is defined using the STEP concept (society, technology, economy and politics) and Porter’s five forces model. The relationship between the perception of the external farm environment and the strategy farmers choose for their farm is quantified to gain insight into the effect of the external farm environment on decision-making. Data from a survey of 103 Dutch dairy farmers was analyzed using regression analysis. The results indicate that environmental uncertainty is not related to complexity or dynamism, but to the illiberality (i.e., intolerance, hostility) of the external farm environment. The institutional environment is considered especially illiberal, thus causing high uncertainty. Farmers with high PEU are more likely to choose a diversification strategy, while low perceived uncertainty results in a process-control strategy for the farm. A growth strategy is not affected by perceived environmental uncertainty. The PE and PEU approach is new in agricultural research and shows that the farmer’s view on the external environment is a key issue for decision-making on farms The significant relationship between the perceived uncertainty caused by the external farm environment and farm strategies shows that to get a good understanding of the farm, farming system boundaries should be expanded to incorporate the effect of the external farm environment on decision making. Reduction of uncertainty will enhance decision-making because instead of farming within an uncertain context, risk management practices can be used.     

基于低影响开发理念的海绵校园建设方案研究——以江苏城乡建设职业学院海绵城市示范项目为例

“海绵校园”既是海绵城市在校园尺度的示范,又是海绵城市的有机组成部分。江苏城乡建设职业学院基于绿色校园建设基础,对校园海绵基底现状进行分析,采用雨水管理“四步”方案,通过“渗”、“滞”、“蓄”、“净”、“用”、“排”等技术措施,实现年径流总量控制率75%的目标。项目具有显著的环境效益、经济效益和社会效益,为运用低影响开发技术打造海绵校园提供借鉴和指导。     

An integrated sustainability assessment of mediterranean sheep farms with different degrees of intensification

In the European Mediterranean basin, pasture-based sheep farming systems are mostly located in marginal/High Nature Value areas. These production systems are multifunctional, and their economic, environmental and social roles are equally important and recognised by policy makers and by society. However, the number of animals and holdings is decreasing, and there is great uncertainty regarding the reproducibility of these farming systems, which depends on many internal and external farm factors and their interactions. The aim of this paper was to perform a comprehensive assessment of sustainability in different sheep farming systems in north eastern Spain using the MESMIS framework. We followed a case-study approach to perform an in-depth investigation of 4 sheep meat and dairy farms with different intensities of reproduction management. Critical points of sustainability, including weaknesses and opportunities, were obtained using a participatory process with stakeholders (farmers and technical advisers) that resulted in the selection of 37 sustainability indicators that were classified according to the systemic attributes defined by MESMIS (productivity, stability, self-reliance, adaptability, equity) and according to the classical sustainability pillars (social, economic and environmental). Some underlying patterns could be observed when analysing sustainability pillars, attributes and indicators. A positive relationship between productivity and intensification level in meat farms was observed; however, economic sustainability was determined not only by on-farm but also by off-farm activities. The economic efficiency of farming (without considering subsidies) was mainly explained by the capture of added value in the dairy systems and the combination of high animal productivity as well as high forage and feed self-sufficiency in the meat systems. Social issues were also central to explaining sustainability at the farm level, including the prospects of generational turnover and the manner in which farmers perceive and rate their activity. A clear trade-off between economic and environmental indicators was observed, i.e., the higher the economic sustainability, the lower the environmental sustainability. Each farm scored differently for diverse attributes, pillars and individual indicators. The scores differed according to size, structure, resource availability and managerial skills, which implies that it would be difficult to apply a holistic sustainability analysis to farming systems instead of individual farms. A number of methodological questions arose during the evaluation process relative to the stakeholders perception of these indicators, their relevance and meaning, the reference values for comparison, or their validity to assess sustainability across spatial and temporal scales. These questions are discussed in the paper.     

An agronomic, economic and behavioral analysis of N application to cotton and wheat in post-Soviet Uzbekistan

Cotton and winter wheat play a vital role in Uzbek agriculture: the first crop is a vital component of the national export revenues, while the latter is key in achieving independence from grain imports. Due to these strategic roles in the national economy, both crops are part of the state procurement system and, hence, are subject to strict regulations imposed to ensure budget revenues and self-sufficiency. However, many factors cause the divergence of crop yields from their technically maximum levels. We analyzed those factors, which hamper achieving the optimum response to fertilizer applications. In a stepwise procedure, we (i) reviewed the technical and financial optimum yield responses of cotton and winter wheat production to fertilizer applications and (ii) analyzed the changes of fertilizer-to-product price ratios to shed light on the agronomic and economic performance of cotton and wheat in the post-Soviet agricultural system of Uzbekistan. The analysis combined data from long-term, historical yield and fertilizer responses, agronomic N-fertilizer response experiments, and socio-economic farm surveys. Quadratic yield-response functions were used to derive economic and technical optimum rates of N-fertilizer applications. Based on the parameterized function and fertilizer-to-product price ratios observed for 1996-2003, we analyzed the difference between recommended fertilization and economic optimum application rates. Results showed that under the state procurement system, Uzbek farmers may not necessarily tend to maximize the profits from their cotton and wheat production. The level of subsidies and the differential crop support by the state induce farmers to follow the official fertilizer recommendations to ensure that they fulfill the production targets even if it implies higher production costs. The present gaps between the officially recorded yields and those technically achievable given the agro-ecological conditions in Uzbekistan cannot be narrowed by only improving N-fertilizer management. It would require additional efforts to improve cotton and wheat yields.     

Integrating agricultural research and policy analysis: analytical framework and policy applications for bio-economic modelling

Interdisciplinary approaches to identify suitable incentives for enhancing sustainable natural resource use require an analytical framework that satisfies both practical purposes of policy support and disciplinary requirements regarding the specification of underlying technical and behavioural relations. Different approaches for agricultural policy analysis are distinguished according to the nature of problems addressed and the analytical procedures applied. Major drawbacks of more disciplinary analysis can be circumvented through functional integration of these approaches. The methodological foundations of an integrated bio-economic modelling framework for the simultaneous appraisal of agro-ecological and socio- economic parameters are presented, and assumptions on farm household decision making regarding crop and technology choice, labour use, market exchange and price responsiveness are discussed. Implications of this integrated approach are analysed against the background of policy discussions on land markets, incentives for innovation, and public investment for agricultural intensification. Policy analysis for sustainable land use proves to be critically dependent on the specification of the linkages between decision-making procedures regarding resource allocation by farm households and their supply response to changes in the economic and institutional environment.     

The analysis of agricultural distribution systems

The application of systems analysis to the study of agricultural distribution has far-reaching implications for marketing investigations and for managerial decision-making. Concepts developed in the emerging discipline of Physical Distribution Management are applicable to agricultural distribution, an area which has not hitherto been the subject of a systems approach which incorporates such concepts as ‘total distribution analysis’, ‘socio-technical systems’ and ‘synergy’. This paper demonstrates the scope for taking a systems analysis view of agricultural distribution and illustrates three of its aspects—namely, the marketing of farm inputs, the distribution of farm produce and machinery management on the farm.     

Comparing water management in rice-wheat production systems in Haryana, India and Punjab, Pakistan

The intensive irrigated rice-wheat systems in the northwest Indo-Gangetic Plains of South Asia are built on a long tradition of canal irrigation and the more recent advent of tubewells. Findings from farm surveys are used to examine water management and water productivity in the rice-wheat belt of India's Haryana State and Pakistan's Punjab province. Attributes of the irrigation sources help explain the widespread interest in groundwater use and the relative demise of canal water use. In each area groundwater now is the main irrigation source, used either solely or in conjunction with surface water. The ownership of tubewells is near universal among the surveyed farms, whereas conjunctive water use is more widespread during the monsoon season, among better endowed farmers and in the Pakistan Punjab. In Pakistan Punjab farmers primarily rely on diesel powered tubewells whereas Haryana farmers mainly use relatively cheaper electric power. Water productivity indicators for rice are markedly lower than those for wheat—largely reflecting significantly higher water inputs in paddy cultivation—but also vary between the study areas and by the prevailing water use, reflecting the limited incentives for farmers to use water wisely. A combination of technological, land use and market based approaches is likely to be most effective in achieving sustainable water management in these intensive cereal systems.     

Modelling multiple objectives of land use for sustainable development

Sustainability is a human-centred concept that comprises multiple aspects and objectives of different interest groups. Sustainable development is not readily measurable, except as a compromise between different parts of society, of which some may try to represent future generations of mankind. To determine a sustainable development path in the relationship between agriculture and its natural environment, a profound knowledge of this complex system and its behaviour under different socio-economic conditions is necessary. We present a modelling system which consists of a set of hierarchically linked modules. These modules describe production activities in a way that allows an economic and ecological analysis of these techniques. The heart of the modelling system is a multiple goal linear programming model, which is generated by data base modules. Simulation of single farm models as well as regional models based on simultaneously optimised farm types is possible. The modelling system appears to be a highly flexible tool with respect to the number and type of farms, sites and production techniques. Environmental objectives can easily be included and different levels of goal achievement can be simulated. It is well suited for single farm analysis as well as for regional models, for static as well as dynamic approaches. It allows rapid adoption of the model and rapid calculation of scenarios. Therefore, it is suited for use in interactive environments with users which are interested in repeated runs with little changes in the goal function, prices, subsidies or technical coefficients. The results can be used for policy decisions as well as the strategic planning of individual farmers. Applications of the modelling system will be presented in following papers. In this paper the kind of information the model can generate and the circumstances of their usage are shown. ©     

An expert system for the management of Botrytis cinerea in Australian vineyards. I. Development

An expert system was developed with the aim of improving decision-making by grape growers in their management of Botrytis cinerea. Knowledge was obtained from the refereed literature on B. cinerea and also from the more general literature on plant pathology and viticulture. The decision to apply a fungicide was based on estimated disease risk, economic threshold, and duration of protective cover provided by fungicides. Up to six factors were used to estimate disease risk. These were ‘Growth Stage’, ‘Conidial Infection’, ‘Mycelial Infection’, ‘Injury’, ‘Symptoms’ and ‘Cultivar Susceptibility’. The economic threshold depended on whether grapes were destined for premium or bulk wine, and length of protective cover of a fungicide was estimated from use patterns advocated on product labels. The knowledge was structured into a dependency network of objects, with the object determining the need to apply a fungicide at the apex of the network. The knowledge was then represented in the knowledge base of the expert system in a series of IF-THEN rules.     

TechnoGIN,a tool for exploring and evaluating resource use efficiency of cropping systems in East and Southeast Asia

Agricultural research in East and Southeast Asia is increasingly challenged by the search for land-use options that best match multiple development objectives of rural societies (e.g., increased income, food security, and reduced environmental pollution). In order to support the identification of sustainable land-use options and to support decision making with respect to land use, a tool was developed for quantifying inputs and outputs of cropping systems at the field level. TechnoGIN, the tool described in this paper, integrates systems analytical and expert knowledge and different types of agronomic data enabling the assessment of inputs and outputs of a broad range of cropping systems and the evaluation of their resource use efficiencies. By using methods of spatial aggregation in combination with linear programming, results can also be used to explore trade-offs in resource-use efficiencies at higher levels such as the farm household, municipality and province. New features in TechnoGIN compared with similar tools include the annual rotation of up to three crops, the distinction between aerobic and anaerobic growing conditions of crops, and the procedure for estimating crop nutrient uptake. TechnoGIN is illustrated with results from the Tam Duong district in North Vietnam. The design of TechnoGIN enables easy access to its data, parameters and assumptions, and rapid generation and evaluation of input–output relationships of cropping systems in order to add new information and to improve data. TechnoGIN raises awareness about the assumptions incorporated and thus supports data collection and setting of the research agenda with respect to agro-ecological processes for which knowledge is incomplete, and is relevant for showing trade-offs between production, economic and environmental impacts of different land-use systems.     

A method for exploring sustainable development options at farm scale: a case study for vegetable farms in South Uruguay

The methodology presented in this paper aims at analysing whether there is room for improvement of vegetable farmers’ income in Canelón Grande (Uruguay), while reducing soil erosion and improving physical and biological soil fertility, and to gain insight in the influence of farmers’ resource availability on the opportunities for sustainable development. The (generic) approach we developed to support re-design of farming systems in this region is unique in dealing with complex temporal interactions in crop rotations and spatial heterogeneity on farms in one integrated method, while revealing trade-off between economic and environmental objectives. Rather than an arbitrary sub-set, all feasible crop rotations were generated, using a tool named ROTAT. The crop rotations were combined with a range of production techniques according to pre-defined design criteria to create a wide variety of alternative production activities at the field scale. We used process-based simulation models supplemented with empirical data and expert knowledge to quantify inputs and outputs of production activities. We developed a mixed integer linear programming model (MILP), named Farm Images, to allocate production activities to a farm with land units differing in soil quality, while maximising or minimising socio-economic and environmental objectives, subject to constraints at the farm level. Production activities comprised current practices as well as activities new to the area. We used Farm Images to design farm systems for seven existing farms in Canelón Grande with different resource availability. The farm systems designed by the model had higher family income than current systems for six of the seven farms studied. The estimated average soil erosion per ha decreased by a factor of 2–4 in the farm systems proposed compared to the current systems, while the rate of change of soil organic matter increased from negative in the current systems to +130 to +280 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ in the proposed farm systems. The degree to which the objectives could be achieved was strongly affected by farm resource endowment, i.e., particularly by the fraction of the area irrigated, soil quality and labour availability per ha. The study suggests that decreasing the area of vegetable crops by introducing long crop rotations with pastures and green manure during the inter-crop periods and integrating beef cattle production into the farm systems would often be a better strategy than the actual farmers’ practice.     

Determining the important management skill competencies: The case of family farm business in New Zealand

Despite the extensive investment in developing computer based decision aids over many years, farmers have failed to utilise other than relatively simple systems, such as accounting and budgeting packages, to any great extent. Another approach to improving farming efficiency, which could well be more successful, is the development of training packages designed to improve farmers’ management skills. These skills get used every day, many on an intuitive basis. The first task in developing this approach involves determining the skills farmers believe are important, and, therefore, need developing. This study provides answers, at least in the New Zealand setting, by reporting information from a large number of randomly selected farmers, as well as professional consultants. The results show both groups believe a wide range of skills are important, and that the set is largely common across all farm types, age spectrums, educational backgrounds, as well as across the full range of ‘managerial styles’ used by the farmers. Similarly, variations in objectives do not influence the ranking of the important skills. The conclusions can be summarised by noting the farmers believe selecting and managing people is a critical skill, as are the components of information gathering and the use of the information in planning, including risk management. Effective implementation of the plans is also regarded as being critical through skills such as anticipation, ‘looking ahead’, and accurate and complete observation, resisting panic, and acting decisively. Devising automatic systems to improve these skills is the next challenge.     

厦门市小流域综合治理与“美丽乡村”建设整合研究——以过芸溪为例

流域综合治理是当前环境可持续发展的热点问题。近年来,我国经济的快速发展带动了农村各项产业的发展,但同时也带来一系列的流域面源污染问题。探索中国流域水污染治理新模式,找到解决流域农业面源污染新路径迫在眉睫。国家在2012年底提出了“美丽乡村”建设战略,给乡村建设带来了新的机遇,也对乡村自然环境的改善带来积极的推动作用。以福建省厦门市海沧区过芸溪流域为研究案例,基于该流域的水质监测数据进行分析,讨论该流域“美丽乡村”建设对水质改善,尤其是改善流域农业面源污染状况方面所起的积极作用,分析“美丽乡村”建设与流域综合治理有效整合的关系,探讨其结合的可行性与保障措施。研究认为,“美丽乡村”建设可以“百姓富,生态美”为总体原则,变流域周边的生态环境资源为发展之本,在保护流域自然生态环境可持续发展的同时,推进流域综合治理、村民生活生产水平的提高。      

Policies to support economic and environmental goals at farm and regional scales: Outcomes for rice farmers in Southern India depend on their resource endowment

Improving water use and nitrogen efficiencies is of overall importance to society at large - to conserve scarce water resources and prevent environmental pollution. Efficient cultivation practices for rice which had no yield penalty were not adopted by farmers because of the open access to water free of charge. Well-chosen combinations of policy measures are thus needed to stimulate adoption of new cultivation practices. We developed a multi-objective linear programming (MGLP) model to explore the impact of: (i) modified rice cultivation including water-saving irrigation on farm profit; (ii) water pricing and water quota government policies on adoption of modified rice cultivation by farmers; (iii) a combination of (i) and (ii) to achieve the objectives of both farmers and society at large, and (iv) to study the trade-offs between income, water and nitrogen use. The analysis was carried out on four rice-based farm types for the state of Tamil Nadu, South India. Model results showed that observed farm profit of all four farm types could be increased using current practices simply by optimizing land use for specific crops. Adoption of modified rice cultivation further increased farm profit. Water-saving practices were selected only when water pricing was introduced. Farm profits were reduced even at low water prices but were compensated by farmers through adoption of modified rice cultivation. The combination of policies that stimulate adoption of modified rice cultivation was effective in achieving both increased farm income and water savings. The required water prices differed across farm types and seasons and impacted poor resource-endowed farmers the most. Providing water quotas could protect the poor resource-endowed farmers. The model helped to identify the optimal water price and water quota for each farm type to achieve both the objectives of farmers and society at large. Opportunities for reducing water use and avoiding environmental pollution at acceptable profits are available for all farm types, but need to be tailored to the farmers’ resource endowments.     

Changing systems for supporting farmers' decisions: problems,paradigms, and prospects

All correct reasoning is a grand system of tautologies, but only God can make direct use of that fact. The rest of us must painstakingly and fallibly tease out the consequences of our assumptions. (Herbert Simon in ‘The Sciences of the Artificial’, p.15)

Decision support systems (DSS), like other information systems (IS) before them, were designed to serve functions deemed by ‘management scientists’ to be potentially useful to managers. But the unwelcome fact is that the use of agricultural DSSs by managers of farms has been low. This paper probes possible reasons for this through interpretation of agricultural DSS case histories and several strands of relevant social theory. From nine cases of DSS development effort and 14 products interpreted comparatively, a number of generalisations are made that serve as reference points in the following search for explanation in theory.First, the nature of management practice of family farms is explored and differences between the internal structure governing personal action and the scientific approach to practice are contrasted. Next, the interaction between the nature of the particular action/practice and the nature of the DSS is explored. A DSS designed to provide integrated, optimal recommendations for management typifies the DSS as a proxy for a manager's decision process. Examples of elaborate expert systems that simply were not used dramatically illustrate the resistance of family farmers to have their decision processes by-passed. On the other hand, the DSS designed to serve as a tool in a modified decision process is shown to have experienced higher use, by deriving and exploiting ‘deep,’ abstract information about the system, by introducing a powerful ‘logic,’ or a combination of both.A number of the referenced case stories demonstrate the resurgence of the decision support mode whereby the simulator is in the hands of an expert intermediary as an alternative to easy-to-use software in the hands of a farmer. This is the mode of operational research/management science, which preceded the DSS.In comparison with hierarchical organizations, available options for overcoming the persistent ‘problem of implementation’ of the DSS in family farms are inherently weak. This focuses attention on the importance of the relationship between the DSS developer and the potential user. Drawing on a classic typology of possible configurations of ‘understanding’ between the scientist and the manager, four approaches to intervention are discussed. Three entail a degree of engagement that qualifies them as ‘participative.’ But one of these constitutes a departure from the DSS and broader IS traditions that places it in another paradigm. In this ‘mutual understanding’ relationship, intervention intent shifts from educating and persuading to recognition of and respect for other ways of viewing the world. This opens up the opportunities for co-creating information systems that utilise the comparative advantages of both practical and scientific knowledge. Intervention emphasis shifts from prescribing action to facilitating learning in actions.Although the DSS has fallen far short of expectations in its influence on farm management, the experience has been instructive in multiple ways to both farmers and professionals in agriculture. In many cases, farmers learned from the DSS and could then jettison it without loss. From disappointments scientists have sometimes learned what was needed to achieve a better outcome. From collated DSS experiences, important lessons for the future can be drawn.The paper concludes by conjecturing that the future of the DSS and related ISs, while more limited than once imagined, holds promise in four directions: a ‘small’ tool for aiding farmers' tactical decisions; a versatile simulator as a consultant's tool; a versatile simulator as the core of a facilitated ‘learning laboratory,’ and a formal framework that supports regulatory objectives in constraining and documenting farming practice.     

Environmental–economic decision-making in lowland irrigated agriculture using multi-criteria analysis techniques

The continuing debate on sustainability has raised wide concerns towards integration of environmental and economic aspects into the development decision-making process. This paper develops a framework for environmental–economic decision making that includes the environmental and economic sustainability criteria, and local people's preferences in the context of a lowland irrigated agriculture system using multi-criteria decision-making techniques. Several criteria, such as land capability/suitability, energy input/output ratio, water demand and environmental costs, are considered as environmental sustainability criteria. Economic sustainability is measured from farmers', governments and societal viewpoints using extended cost-benefit analysis. The Geographic Information System (GIS) technique has been used to evaluate spatial sustainability criteria. The involvement of local people at various levels of the decision- making process is emphasized and their opinions are sought in the decision-making process using a two-stage field survey. The results of the multi-criteria analysis combining both environmental and economic sustainability criteria are discussed, and economic incentives for sustainable intensification of lowland irrigated agriculture are outlined.