Avian anesthesia.

Providing a safe anesthetic environment is the key to successful avian anesthesia. Knowledge and understanding the anatomic and physiologic differences between birds and mammals help to prevent most emergency situations and guide responses in critical situations. Thorough preanesthetic history and examination, correction of underlying conditions, and use of simple anesthetic protocols all optimize the outcome of the procedure. Finally, critical monitoring helps to anticipate most crises and reduces incidences of mortality and morbidity in avian anesthesia.     

Avian toxicology.

Owing to the unique physiology of birds, most toxicities are life-threatening and require prompt, well-informed action. It is often hard to ascertain which specific toxin or the amount of toxin to which the bird has been exposed. Therefore, the most important action is to treat the bird, not the poison. This article discusses the steps in diagnosing and treating toxicoses, from both natural and man-made toxins, that have been reported in avian species.     

Avian analgesia.

Understanding behavioral indicators of pain and other assessment techniques can help one to recognize pain in birds and prompt us to treat birds with analgesics. An analgesic plan needs to include several modalities to help reduce pain in the avian patient. Analgesic therapy should be directed at treating the disease/injury in the periphery, and the changes that occur in the central nervous system (CNS). Both opioid and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) therapeutics can be selected to provide analgesia for the avian patient.     

Basics of cytology and fluid cytology.

Cytology as a diagnostic tool has played a major role in the management of diseases affecting domestic mammals for over 20 years. It has also become a valuable diagnostic tool in the evaluation of nondomestic or the so-called "exotic" animal patients, such as small mammals and the lower vertebrates. Common cytologic specimens used to evaluate the exotic animal patient include aspirates of masses and organs, imprints of biopsy material, tracheal wash samples, aspiration of abdominal or coelomic fluid, and fecal smears. In general, the same cytologic sample collection and preparation techniques used for domestic mammals also apply to exotic animal patients. The interpretation of the cytology specimen is generally the same as that of domestic mammals.     

Renal cytology.

FNA of renal tissue is a rapid and noninvasive diagnostic tool that can be optimized by a thorough understanding of renal diseases, anatomy, and the ultrasonographic appearance of lesions likely to exfoliate for cytology. Signalment, history, and ancillary laboratory tests can narrow the list of differential diagnoses and help to determine whether cytologic evaluation will be sufficient or whether tissue architecture is needed for a definitive diagnosis. Renal cytology is particularly useful for the diagnosis of inflammation and neoplasia, including abscesses, FIP, mycotic infections, lymphoma, carcinoma, and metastatic neoplasia.     

Liver cytology.

Physical examination, clinical laboratory testing, and medical imaging are effective in establishing the presence of liver disease; however, they infrequently establish a definitive diagnosis. Morphologic evaluation of liver tissue is generally accepted as a valuable diagnostic tool in establishing a diagnosis in liver disease. Clinicians have several options for obtaining specimens for morphologic evaluation, including surgically obtained wedge biopsies, percutaneous core biopsies, and fine-needle aspiration specimens. Surgical and core biopsy procedures require anesthesia or sedation and have a substantial risk of bleeding complications. Fine-needle aspiration usually does not require sedation and is rarely associated with hemorrhage; thus, it is frequently chosen for animals that are poor anesthetic risks or have coagulopathies. Diseases like malignant lymphoma, hepatic lipidosis, and suppurative hepatitis are readily diagnosed cytologically, whereas hepatocellular adenomas, hyperplastic nodules, fibrosis, and chronic inflammation are more difficult to identify cytologically.     

Avian reproductive endocrinology.

Hypothalamic-releasing factors regulate the secretion of anterior pituitary hormones. The anterior pituitary gland secretes the same six hormones as found in mammals: FSH, LH, prolactin, GH (somatotropic hormone), ACTH, and TSH, plus the melanotropic hormone. The endocrine hormones of the avian posterior pituitary gland concerned with reproduction are mesotocin and AVT. The pineal gland, through the secretion of the hormone melatonin, modulates the periodic autonomic functions of the central nervous system. The ovary produces estrogens, progestogens, and androgenic compounds. The testes produce testosterones and progesterone. The thyroid glands produce two hormones, T4 and T3. The avian adrenal glands produce corticosterone and aldosterone. The bursa of Fabricius is considered an endocrine organ since it is involved in the production of humoral factors. The male reproductive system undergoes hormonal changes associated with puberty, the breeding season, and molt. Some avian species undergo a type of disintegration and seasonal reconstruction of the testis and epididymis. The relationship of the ovarian follicular hormones and the plasma hormones varies depending on the stage of the reproductive cycle and the seasonal photostimulation. Female birds may conceive in the absence of a mate as a result of the fertile period phenomena. The blood chemistry of laying birds is different from that seen in nonlaying hens. Domestication has had a definite influence on the hormone cycles of some avian species. This may lead to certain reproductive problems.     

Avian skin diseases.

Avian dermatology is an important part of avian practice. Feather plucking, or self-mutilation, is one of the most common and challenging syndromes seen in avian practices, yet our understanding of it has developed piecemeal. Psittacine circovirus, which causes psittacine beak and feather disease, can devastate breeding programs and cause masked distress to new bird owners and their young birds. Cutaneous neoplasms are increasing in incidence as veterinarians are seeing more older bird patients.     

Avian practice tips.

This article reviews the therapy of the sick bird. Common differential diagnoses, inpatient versus outpatient therapy, preventive medicine, and post-purchase examinations are discussed. The importance of client education is stressed.     

Avian clinical pathology.

Much of the information previously available concerning avian clinical pathology was drawn from data from domestic avian species, in particular, poultry. Clinical pathology of nondomestic avian species such as psittacines, however, has come a long way toward establishing normal reference values for caged birds. As a result, it is important for the avian clinician to learn which clinical tests can be used to detect and evaluate a single disease or disease processes by learning what information is gained from hematologic, biochemical, or cytologic samples acquired during a patient's clinical examination.     

Lymph node cytology.

Lymph node cytology is quick, easy, and rewarding. Cytologic samples of peripheral and/or internal lymph nodes may be collected by fine-needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB) or nonaspiration fine-needle biopsy techniques. In addition, imprints or scrapings may be made from lymph nodes that have been surgically removed or at necropsy. Lymph node cytology is an excellent way to evaluate a lymphadenopathy whether it is a single node enlarged, multiple nodes enlarged, or a generalized lymphadenopathy. If multiple lymph nodes are enlarged, more than one should be sampled. A lymph node away from the mouth or any site of inflammation should be aspirated as well as any lymph node close to a site of inflammation. Generally, if no lymph nodes are enlarged, lymph node cytology is not helpful.     

Avian care and husbandry.

Birds are becoming more popular as pets, and the need for veterinary professionals to learn more about these pets is crucial. This article introduces the veterinary staff to basic information required to provide high-quality care to avian patients. High-quality nutrition for a variety of species and ages is included in this article. The importance of proper husbandry and intellectual stimulation with toys is also discussed. Special emphasis is placed on instructions for clients when making appointments, as well as recognizing signs of illness for both clients and veterinary staff. Capture, restraint, and sample collection are an important part of this article, as well as medication administration, anesthesia, supportive care, preventive care and grooming. A variety of aspects concerning the care of the avian patient are covered for the benefit of the client and veterinary technician.     

Diagnostic cytology of fish.

Cytology is an essential part of a diagnostic workup in cases of aquatic animal diseases. It is simple to perform, inexpensive, and can yield quick and valuable results. External parasites, bacterial and fungal diseases, and gastrointestinal infestations are easily determined with wet mount cytology. Because of the relatively small number of nonlethal diagnostic techniques available for aquatic species, cytologic testing should be considered in every case. Early diagnosis can lead to more effective treatment plans, ensuring a better prognostic outcome in our patients.