Diets for laying hens containing unusual ingredients and varying concentrations of cereals including no cereals

1. Light‐ and medium‐hybrid laying hens received one of six diets (A, B, C, D, E and F) containing decreasing amounts (758, 560, 374, 270, 185 and 0 g/kg) of cereals and increasing amounts of unusual ingredients, from 22 weeks of age.

2. The diet containing no cereal and 225 g dried poultry manure/kg (diet F) caused a severe reduction in performance and was discontinued at 27 weeks of age; the other treatments were continued until 48 weeks of age.

3. In the case of medium hybrids, rate of lay (number of eggs/100 hen d) was similar with diets A, B and C and about 2 percentage points lower with diets D and E; egg output (g per hen d) tended to decrease slightly as dietary cereal concentration decreased.

4. In the case of light hybrids, rate of lay was about 5 percentage points lower with diets B, C and D and about 13 percentage points lower with diet E than with diet A.

5. Mortality was similar on each diet.

6. The effect of diet on live‐weight gain was inconsistent and statistically not significant.     

The effects of crude and refined low erucic acid rapeseed oils in diets for laying hens

1. The effects of feeding diets containing 15% crude or refined low erucic acid Span rapeseed oils, refined regular rapeseed oil or lard to pullets on productive performance and the lipids of egg yolk were determined.

2. Productive performance was best with the low‐fat control diet, less good with the crude low erucic acid Span oil or lard‐containing diets, intermediate with the diet containing refined Span oil and worst with the diet containing regular rapeseed oil.

3. The various dietary treatments did not affect total lipid content of egg yolk but did affect the fatty acid composition of egg yolk lipids.

4. No substantial amounts of erucic acid were found in the eggs indicating that the hen is able to control the lipid concentration in egg yolk though control of the fatty acid composition of lipids is poorer.     

A comparison of the energy and nitrogen metabolism of fed ducklings and chickens

1. Energy measurements were made over 4 d on groups of three ducklings (aged from 5 to 22 d), and three broiler chickens (aged from 11 to 32 d) offered high‐ or low‐energy diets.

2. Food, metabolisable energy (ME) and water intakes were significantly higher for ducklings than for chickens. The ratio of water : food was 4.2 : 1 and 2.3 : 1 for ducklings and chickens, respectively. The food conversion ratio differed between diets but not species. Performance was generally better for both species on the high‐energy diet.

3. Heat production, energy, fat and protein retentions were higher for ducklings than chickens, and ducklings retained 0.44 of their energy as fat compared with 0.37 for chickens. Overall the ratio of protein (g) to fat (g) retention was 2.2 : 1 and 2.8 : 1 for ducklings and chickens respectively.

4. For ducklings, metabolisability of the high‐energy diet declined from 0.774 to 0.747, and to a lesser extent of the low‐energy diet, as they aged. There was no such decline for chickens. Net efficiency of utilisation of ME for gain was 0.64 for ducklings compared with 0.50 for chickens.

5. Fractional retention of dietary nitrogen (N) was 0.62 for ducklings and 0.55 for chickens. Gaseous ammonia‐N was 4.5 and 2.2%, respectively, of N retained.

6. In a second experiment groups of ducklings only, were offered high‐and low‐protein diets from 12 to 22 d of age. Comparisons among four diets showed that food and energy intake was lower on the low‐protein diet than on the other three. Energy retention on the high‐energy diet was greater (P<0.05) than on the other three diets.

7. It was concluded that a high‐energy diet is important for ducklings and chickens for maximum biological performance during the first 4 weeks of life.     

Effects of diet,age and gender on the polyunsaturated fatty acid composition of broiler anatomical compartments

1.?The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of dietary fatty acid (FA) composition, age, and gender on the FA composition of different broiler anatomical compartments. Four dietary fat sources (palm fat, P; soybean oil, S; linseed oil, L; fish oil, F) were added to a wheat–soybean meal based diet at 30 g/kg in addition to 50 g/kg palm fat. Diets were fed separately to female and male birds from d 1 to either d 21 or d 42 of age.

2.?The total FA content (mg/100 g tissue) and the FA composition (g/100 g FAME) was determined in 7 anatomical compartments (skinless thigh muscle, skinless breast muscle, liver, heart, brain, abdominal fat pad, and remainders plus carcase trimmings named Rest compartment). The FA profiles differed greatly among compartments and were strongly affected by diet.

3.?The S diet resulted in a 2–3-fold increase of the proportion of C18:2n-6 and C20:4n-6 in all compartments compared to the other diets, except for brain.

4.?The response in the proportion of C18:3n-3 following feeding the L diet was much greater, with 4–20-fold increases compared to the other diets, except again for brain.

5.?In all compartments except brain, the L diet resulted in approximately a 2-fold increase in the proportion of C22:6n-3 compared to the P and S diets and smaller, but also significant, increases for C20:5n-3 and C22:5n-3.

6.?The proportions of C20:5n-3, C22:5n-3 and C22:6n-3 were much higher on the F diet in all compartments, except for brain, compared to the P and S diets. The F diet resulted in higher proportions of C22:6n-3 than the proportions of C20:5n-3 and C22:5n-3 in breast and thigh meat, and liver, in contrast to the other diets.

7.?Brain was less responsive than other tissues to changes in the dietary FA composition. The proportion of C22:6n-3 in brain was similar on the L and F diets.

8.?The effect of gender on the FA composition of different anatomical compartments was marginal. The long-chain n-3 and n-6 PUFA in breast, liver, and brain decreased with age.     

Influence of heated vegetable oils and α‐tocopheryl acetate supplementation on α‐tocopherol,fatty acids and lipid peroxidation in chicken muscle

1. Chicks were fed on diets containing fresh, heated or α‐tocopheryl acetate‐supplemented heated vegetable oils. The effects on α‐tocopherol status, and on the fatty acid composition and oxidative stability of thigh and breast muscle were determined.

2. Plasma α‐tocopherol was significantly correlated with α‐tocopherol concentrations in thigh and breast muscle.

3. The fatty acid profiles of muscle lipids reflected dietary fatty acid composition.

4. The consumption of heated sunflower and linseed oils reduced α‐tocopherol status, altered fatty acid composition of muscle lipids and increased susceptibility of muscle to lipid oxidation.

5. Supplementation of diets containing heated oils with α‐tocopheryl acetate resulted in some alleviation of these effects.

6. The results indicate that caution should be exercised in the use of thermally oxidised oils in poultry diets if undesirable changes in composition and oxidative stability of carcase lipids are to be avoided.     

Lupin and rapeseed meals in poultry diets: Effect on broiler performance and sensory evaluation of carcasses

1. The effect of including lupin meal (Lupinus angustifolius), with or without rapeseed meal, in computer‐formulated, least‐cost diets for broilers has, been determined.

2. In the first experiment the diets contained 0, 8 (with and without supplementary methionine, lysine, or methionine and lysine) or 16% lupin meal: addition of the lupin meal required a concomitant addition of 5 % rapeseed meal (by computer selection).

3. The diets were fed from 38 to 65 d and did not affect live‐weight but the efficiency of food utilisation was significantly worse on the 16 % lupin, 5% rapeseed meal diet than it was on the control diet.

4. The second experiment was designed as a 2 x 4 factorial to separate any effect due to rapeseed meal from that due to lupin meal, the treatments, which were applied from 1 to 62 d, being 0, 8, 16 and 24% lupin meal with and without 5 % rapeseed meal.

5. Birds gained more rapidly in the second experiment on diets containing 16 or 24% lupin meal whereas live‐weight was depressed when 5% rapeseed meal was included in the diets containing 0 or 8% lupin.

6. The 16 and 24% lupin treatments also had added dietary fat from 6 to 9 weeks of age and this may have ameliorated the adverse effect of rapeseed meal.

7. Up to 16% lupin meal and 5% rapeseed meal had no detectable effect on the colour, appearance, flavour or texture of roasted chicken meat when evaluated by a trained taste panel.     

The response of egg weight to the inclusion of different amounts of vegetable oil and linoleic acid in the diet of laying hens

1. Four diets containing different amounts of vegetable oil and linoleic acid were fed to White Leghorn hens throughout a full laying year.

2. Egg weight was poor with the low fat basal diet but increased in relation to the amounts of maize oil (4 and 30 g/kg) included in the diet.

3. With a diet containing 30 g olive oil/kg, egg weight was similar to that obtained with the diet containing the same amount of maize oil.

4. Rearing the birds on diets containing low or moderate amounts of linoleic acid did not affect the response to fatty acid content of the layer's diet.

5. It is concluded that the requirement of the laying hen for linoleic add is not higher than 9 g/kg but that egg weight does respond to higher dietary amounts of readily absorbable fatty acids.     

Effect of dietary fatty acids on humoral immune response of Turkeys

1. This study examined the effect of increasing amounts of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids on the fatty acid composition in serum and antibody production following a standard vaccination programme in growing turkeys. Turkey poults were fed on 5 diets containing 75g/kg added fat made up of different proportions of palm and soyabean oils, and were vaccinated against Newcastle disease, infectious bronchitis and necrotic enteritis according to a standard vaccination programme. Blood samples were taken before and one week after each vaccination.

2. Fatty acid composition in serum reflected the composition of the diets although arachidonic acid concentration was not changed by dietary fatty acid content. Growth, erythrocyte and leukocyte parameters were not affected by the respective diets.

3. Specific antibody production was related quadratically to serum linoleic and total n‐6 polyunsaturated fatty acid concentrations. No correlation was found with linolenic or arachidonic acids.

4. It is concluded that dietary fatty acid composition can augment the specific anti‐vaccine immune response in turkey poults.     

Dietary selection of protein and energy by pullets and broilers

1. White Leghorn pullets and sexed broilers were allowed a free choice of two “ split‐diets “ which were concentrated sources of either crude protein (463 g/kg diet) or energy (13.32 to 14.00 MJ/kg diet).

2. Pullets receiving these two diets displayed a slower, but more uniform growth rate than did birds offered a single conventional diet. Up to 11 weeks of age, control birds consumed significantly more protein while the converse was true from 11 to 20 weeks. These differences are discussed in relation to the stage of sexual maturity.

3. Broilers offered the split‐diets grew more slowly and had an inferior food conversion ratio compared with control birds fed on a two‐stage rearing programme.

4. Among the broilers offered split‐diets, the usual sex differences were not observed for weight gain or carcass fat content.     

Studies on the incorporation of triticale in diets for growing chicks

1. The classical ME value of triticale varied from 12.305 to 13.778 kJ/g or 11.819 to 13.016 kJ/g corrected for N‐retention depending upon method of calculation.

2. Substituting triticale for maize, weight for weight, but not on a iso‐nitrogenous basis, in a groundnut oil cake (GNC) starter diet improved weight gain (P < 0.05) when the substitution exceeded 75% without affecting the protein efficiency ratio (PER).

3. A similar substitution in a soybean oil meal diet, improved weight gain (P < 0.05) at 50% or more but PER declined (P < 0.05).

4. The net protein utilisation and protein retention efficiency values of the diets in which maize protein was replaced by triticale protein were significantly reduced.

5. The maize‐GNC diet was equally limiting in methionine and lysine while the triticale‐GNC diet was not.

6. The growth and food efficiency obtained with a triticale‐GNC diet was higher (P < 0.01) than with the maize‐GNC diet but not with a maize‐GNC supplemented with fish meal and methionine.

7. It is concluded that triticale could quantitatively substitute maize in the starter diets.     

Feeding behaviour in chickens given diets containing medium chain triglyceride

1. The effect of dietary medium chain triglyceride (MCT) on short‐term food intake was compared with the effect of long chain triglyceride (LCT) in chickens. Maize oil was used as the LCT while glyceryl tricaprylate (C 8) and glyceryl tricaprate (C 10) were used as MCT. Cumulative food intake was determined during the 6 h after the start of feeding.

2. Chicks were given diets containing 200 g C 8/kg diet, 200 g C 10/kg diet or 200 g LCT/kg diet in experiment 1. As early as 30 min after feeding, cumulative food intake in both MCT‐supplemented diets decreased significantly compared with the diet containing LCT.

3. To determine if endogenous cholecystokinin (CCK) was responsible for the decrease in food intake caused by MCT, birds were injected with the CCK‐A receptor antagonist devazepide (DVZ, 1 mg/kg BW) before diet presentation. DVZ had no effect on food intake with either LCT‐ or MCT‐supplemented diets.

4. In experiment 3, chicks were given a choice between either diets containing LCT and C 8, LCT and C 10, or C 8 and C 10 to confirm whether or not the palatability of the diets was influenced by the dietary fat sources. There was no difference in food intake between C 8 and C 10‐supplemented diets. However, chicks preferred the LCT‐supplemented diet compared with either of the diets containing MCT.     

The nutritional value of low lathyrogenic Lathyrus (Lathyrus sativus) for growing chicks

1. The feeding value of new low β‐N‐oxalyl‐amino‐L‐alanine (BOAA) lines of Lathyrus sativus (lathyrus) and the benefits of dehulling the seed or of pre‐adapting chicks to lathyrus‐based diets were examined in several experiments.

2. Chicks fed on diets containing 400 g/kg of the low (1.3 g BOAA/kg seed) and medium (2.2 g BOAA/kg seed) BOAA lines did not differ (P>0.05) in weight gain (WG) or in apparent fat and protein digestibilities compared to birds fed on a wheat‐based diet.

3. Consumption of 600 g low BOAA lathyrus/kg diet caused a slight, but significant (P< 0.05), decrease in WG. Food efficiency decreased as the amount of dietary lathyrus was increased, suggesting that lathyrus may contain an antinutritive factor(s) other than BOAA.

4. Removal of the hull (70 g hull/kg seed) from the seed did not affect chick performance (P> 0.05).

5. Pre‐adapting chicks for 7 d to diets containing up to 600 g medium line lathyrus/kg diet did not reduce the detrimental effects of the lathyrus.

6. Although dehulling and pre‐adaptation of chicks to lathyrus were not beneficial, the low and medium lines of lathyrus tested show potential for use in chick diets up to at least 400 g lathyrus/kg diet.     

Behavioural adaptation of laying hens to dilution of diets under mash and pellet form

1. Two laying diets, control (A) and a low‐energy (B) diet diluted by adding 450 g/kg wheat bran, were fed to semi‐heavy hens in three different forms: mash, small pellets and large pellets. The behavioural adaptations and the production characteristics for these six regimens were studied on 72 individually caged hens, between 19 and 29 weeks of age, subjected to a lighting pattern of 14 h light/24 h.

2. Diet B, as mash, showed a lower apparent physical density than the others. The hardness and durability of the pelleted diets were similar.

3. Hens fed the mash diet B could not completely adjust their food intake to compensate for the dilution and showed reduced egg output and body weight gain compared to the other groups.

4. Video observation of each hen for 14 consecutive hours showed that mash‐fed hens ate for longer periods than pellet‐fed hens during the first 11 h (proportion of time spent eating: 41.3% mash B, 32.5% mash A and 20% to 25% for all the pelleted diets). These differences were less pronounced during the last 3 h of the photoperiod.

5. Trough‐oriented stereotypies were noted in 14 out of 22 mash‐fed hens and in 12 out of 47 pellet‐fed hens. Dilution of the diet did not appear to exacerbate stereotyped behaviours under the conditions of the study.

6. This experiment demonstrates that the feeding behaviour of laying hens is affected by the physical characteristics of the diet and that this may lower their productivity.

7. Low‐energy pelleted diets might be used to feed hens efficiently in tropical countries where cereal by‐products are abundant.     

Hydrogenated oil decreases tissue concentrations of n‐6 polyunsaturated fatty acids and may contribute to dyschondroplasia in broilers

1. In a factorial design of dietary treatments, male Ross broilers were given diets containing soyabean oil, hydrogenated soya‐bean oil (as a source of trans‐fatty acids) or feed fat with either 0 or 300 μg of added D‐biotin/kg.

2. Growth to 28 d was not influenced by the dietary treatments.

3. Length of tibiotarsal bones was reduced (P<0.05) and severity of leg bone cartilage lesions, characteristic of dyschondroplasia, was highest (P<0.05) in broilers fed on diets containing hydrogenated soyabean oil.

4. Feeding hydrogenated soyabean oil lowered (P< 0.05) the concentrations of C₂₀:_4n6 and the ratios of C_20:4n6/C_18:2n6 in liver and growth plate cartilage.

5. Growth plate cartilage from birds affected with dyschondroplasia contained lower proportions of prostaglandin precursor fatty acids compared with normal growth plate.

6. It is speculated that an inhibition of prostaglandin biosynthesis brought about by the presence of trans‐fatty acids might contribute to the occurrence of lesions similar to dyschondroplasia.     

Egg discolouration effects of including screw‐press cottonseed meal in laying hen diets and their prevention

The egg discolouration effects of including a screw‐press cottonseed meal (CSM), containing 68.2 g residual lipid/kg, 290 mg cyclopropenoid fatty acids (CPFA)/kg and 1226 mg free gossypol/kg, in laying hen diets at 300 g/kg were examined.

2. Discolouration prevention methods included treating the meal with ferrous sulphate heptahydrate (FSH), in solution or as crystals, at a 4:1 weight ratio of iron to free gossypol (experiment 1), and reducing its residual lipid (CSL) content to 4.2 g/kg by hexane extraction (experiment 2).

3. In freshly laid eggs, no discolouration was observed when hens were fed a CSM‐based diet containing 250 mg free gossypol/kg and 87 mg CPFA/kg in experiment 1, but slightly brown yolks were produced in experiment 2.

4. Storage of the eggs at 22°C led to yolk mottling, an effect believed to be the initial stages of the brown yolk discolouration.

5. Storage of the eggs at 5°C resulted in enhancement of the brown yolk discolouration, apricot discolouration on surfaces of most yolks and pink albumen discolouration. These effects were prevented when the CSM was extracted with hexane. Apricot yolk and pink albumen discolourations were also produced when hens were fed a non‐CSM diet containing crude CSL at 20.5 g/kg.

6. Dietary CSL increased egg fat saturation, altering the ratios of stearic to oleic, palmitic to palmitoleic and heptadecanoic to hepta‐decenoic fatty acids.

7. Treatment of CSM with FSH reduced the slight brown yolk discolouration in fresh eggs (experiment 2) and the yolk mottling in warm‐stored eggs. Both in solution and as crystals, FSH prevented the enhancement of brown yolk discolouration in cold‐stored eggs, leaving most eggs with apricot yolk and pink albumen discolourations.

8. Treatment of CSM and CSL with FSH reduced the CPFA‐related effects on yolk fat saturation, and the colour and pH changes in cold‐stored eggs.

9. Exposure of yolks to ammonia vapour provided a useful test to predict the development of the gossypol‐related brown discolouration in stored eggs.     

Food intake adjustments of chicks: Short term reactions to deficiencies in lysine,methionine and tryptophan

1. Two experiments were conducted to compare food intake responses of broiler chicks fed diets varying in lysine, methionine, and tryptophan. Diet D was formulated to create simultaneous deficiencies of lysine, methionine, and tryptophan. Diet A matched National Research Council (1984) recommendations for broilers, and diets B and C were, respectively, 2:1 and 1:2 mixes of diets A and D.

2. Short‐term food intake can provide information on the sequences of adaptation of chicks to a diet deficient in essential amino acids.

3. Chicks consumed 26% less of diet D than A during the first 24 h posthatch. When chicks fed diet A or D to 7 d of age were then fed one of 4 diets singly, within 24 h intake was lowest for chicks fed diet D. Within 48 h, food intake of diet C was more than that of diet D and less than that of diet A, while for diet B intake was more than of diet D but not different from diet A.

4. In the second experiment, chicks were fed diet A to 8 d and then diets A or D alone or given a choice of diets A and D from 8 to 20 d of age. Within 4 to 8 h, food intake of chicks fed diet D alone decreased markedly followed by partial recovery within 24 h. In a choice setting, consistent preference of Diet A over Diet D was observed within 7 h followed by stabilisation at about 65% diet A to 35% diet D.

5. Chicks fed diet D alone from 8 to 20 d of age, then placed in the same choice situation preferred diet A to D with a delay of less than one h and stabilisation at about 85%. Chicks provided a choice of diets A and D from 8 to 20 d, and then diet D alone reduced their food intake more quickly than those not given a choice initially.

6. Broiler chicks appear to react to amino acid deficiencies within a short period (hours) by adjusting their feed intake and/or selection. The response is influenced by age and prior experience.     

Studies on the effect of lysine and methionine supplementation of a high‐protein maize‐soyabean diet and of a low‐protein barley‐white fish meal diet on the performance of caged layers

Selected literature relating to the amino acid supplementation of layers’ diets is reviewed and the results of two experiments are presented.

In the first experiment a basal soyabean meal diet (14.3 per cent crude protein) was supplemented with L‐lysine and DL‐methionine, singly and together. Supplementation of the basal soyabean diet with the amino acids caused no significant effects on egg production, mean and total egg weight or food conversion efficiency. None of the soyabean diets proved as satisfactory for egg production or food conversion efficiency as a fish meal control diet (16.9 per cent crude protein).

In the second experiment the effect of adding 0.1 per cent each of L‐lysine and DL‐methionine or 0.2 per cent each of l‐lysine and DL‐methionine to a low fish meal diet (2.5 per cent fish meal) was examined. The addition of 0.2 per cent of each amino acid caused an increase in egg production.

Mean egg weight was improved by the addition of amino acids at both levels although this effect was not statistically significant. Comparison of the low fish meal diets with a fishmeal control diet (10 per cent fishmeal) showed that at the 0.2 per cent addition of amino acids, egg production, total egg weight and food conversion efficiency were better than on the 10 per cent fish meal control diet.

Two breeds, light and medium hybrids were used in both experiments.

The results are discussed with reference to their practical significance.     

Role of dietary γ‐linolenic acid in liver lipid metabolism in Japanese quail

1. The importance of linoleic acid (18:2n‐6) itself and of dietary y‐linolenic acid (18:3n‐6) as essential fatty acids (EFA) in Japanese quail were investigated with regard to liver lipid metabolism. Experimental diets were made by adding of 0, 2 or 4 g γ‐linolenic acid/kg, or 20 g linoleic acid/kg to an n‐6 EFA‐free diet. From 3 to 6 weeks of age, birds were fed equal amounts of experimental diets.

2. liver weight and lipid content in birds fed the 2 and 4 g γ‐linolenic acid/kg diet were significantly lower than those in birds fed the γ‐linolenic acid‐free diet. However, no significant difference was observed between the γ‐linolenic acid‐ and linoleic acid‐supplemented diets.

3. In birds fed the 4 g γ‐linolenic acid/kg diet, the proportion of arachidonic acid in the liver lipid was similar to that in quail fed the 20 g linoleic acid/kg diet, implying a conversion rate from linoleic acid to y‐linolenic acid of approximately 20% of whole body content.

4. It is concluded that linoleic acid itself is not essential for Japanese quail and that at least 2 g/kg of γ‐linolenic acid in the diet completely prevents liver enlargement accompanied by lipid accumulation.     

Voluntary food restriction by laying hens mediated through dietary self‐selection

1. Individually caged Single Comb White Leghorn hens simultaneously received two diets which allowed selection of certain nutrients: these “ split‐diets “, essentially provided concentrated sources of either protein and energy (191 g crude protein, 12.82 MJ ME and 4.7 g Ca/kg diet), or calcium (107 g CP, 7.28 MJ ME and 131 g Ca/kg).

2. During four, 28‐d periods of lay, birds offered these split‐diets consumed some 7% less food in total than did control birds receiving a conventional diet ad libitum.

3. Calculation of nutrient intakes showed that birds on the split‐diets consumed significantly less protein, energy and calcium than the control birds.

4. Giving split‐diets also resulted in superior shell quality; treatment differences were also noted in the timing of oviposition.

5. It is suggested that the voluntary reduction in food intake noted for birds offered split‐diets is associated with an appetite for calcium.     

Effects of dietary supplements on the nutritive value of jack beans (canavalia ensiformis) for the young chick

1. Two experiments were conducted with young chicks to examine the efficacy of dietary supplements of amino acids, creatine and potassium acetate in the alleviation of adverse effects of auto‐claved jack beans (AJB).

2. Creatine supplementation of AJB diets markedly enhanced the efficiencies of food and nitrogen utilisation of chicks, restoring these indices to control values. The improvement in nitrogen utilisation was enhanced further on providing creatine with a mixture of 2‐aminoiso‐butyric acid, arginine and lysine.

3. Potassium acetate induced striking improvements in the nitrogen retention efficiencies of chicks fed on AJB diets.

4. Liver weights, as a proportion of body weight, generally increased on feeding AJB diets, the effects being marked with the AJB diet supplemented with arginine and lysine.

5. Hepatic urea concentrations were elevated in all groups receiving AJB. Canavanine, a toxic amino acid component of AJB, could not be detected in acid hydrolysates of livers from chicks fed this legume.

6. Temperature and the volumes of water employed in the preparation of AJB are important determinants of its nutritional value.