Methane and nitrous oxide emissions from organic and conventional rice cropping systems in Southeast China

To evaluate the impacts of organic cropping system on global warming potentials (GWPs), field measurements of CH₄ and N₂O were taken in conventional and organic rice (Oryza sativa L.) cropping systems in southeast China. Rice paddies were under various water regimes, including continuous flooding (F), flooding–midseason drainage–reflooding (F-D-F), and flooding–midseason drainage–reflooding and moisture but without waterlogging (F-D-F-M). Nitrogen was applied at the rate of 100 kg N ha^?1, as urea-N or pelletized, dehydrated manure product in conventional or organic rice paddies, respectively. Seasonal fluxes of CH₄ averaged 4.44, 2.14, and 1.75 mg m^?2 h^?1 for the organic paddy plots under the water regimes of F, F-D-F and F-D-F-M, respectively. Relative to conventional rice paddies, organic cropping systems increased seasonal CH₄ emissions by 20%, 23%, and 35% for the plots under the water regimes of F, F-D-F, and F-D-F-M, respectively. Under the water regimes of F-D-F and F-D-F-M, seasonal N₂O-N emissions averaged 10.85 and 13.66 μg m^?2 h^?1 in organic rice paddies, respectively, which were significantly lower than those in conventional rice paddies. The net global warming potentials (GWPs) of CH₄ and N₂O emissions from organic rice paddies relative to conventional rice paddies were significantly higher or comparable under various water regimes. The greenhouse gas intensities were greater, while carbon efficiency ratios were lower in organic relative to conventional rice paddies. The results of this study suggest that organic cropping system might not be an effective option for mitigating the combined climatic impacts from CH₄ and N₂O in paddy rice production.     

小麦植株在麦田CH4交换中的作用及光照的影响

采用密闭箱/气相色谱法对中国科学院山东禹城实验站的麦田CH4通量进行观测,研究了土壤CH4通量、光照和遮光情况下的土壤-植物系统CH4通量,及植物、光照等因素对CH4通量的影响.试验采用小暗箱测定土壤CH4通量,采用暗箱和明箱测定土壤-植物系统CH4通量,同步观测了生物量、5 cm土壤温度、土壤水分及土壤NH4+含量.结果表明,麦田土壤和土壤-植物系统CH4通量均无明显的日变化,但季节变化显著;小麦的存在使土壤-植物系统CH4通量的季节波动加剧;小麦植株和光照促进麦田土壤-植物系统对CH4的吸收.此外,本研究发现在野外观测中,采用明箱覆盖土壤以及植物进行观测更能真实反映有植被覆盖的地表CH4通量状况.     

Diurnal and seasonal variations in CH4 flux from termite mounds in tropical savannas of the Northern Territory, Australia

Termites are estimated to contribute between <5 and 19% of the global methane (CH₄) emissions. These estimates have large uncertainties because of the limited number of field-based studies and species studied, as well as issues of diurnal and seasonal variations. We measured CH₄ fluxes from four common mound-building termite species (Microcerotermes nervosus, M. serratus, Tumulitermes pastinator and Amitermes darwini) diurnally and seasonally in tropical savannas in the Northern Territory, Australia. Our results showed that there were significant diel and seasonal variations of CH₄ emissions from termite mounds and we observed large species specific differences. On a diurnal basis, CH₄ fluxes were least at the coolest time of the day (∼07.00 h) and greatest at the warmest (∼15.00 h) for all species for both wet and dry seasons. We observed a strong and significant positive correlation between CH₄ flux and mound temperature for all species. A mound excavation experiment demonstrated that the positive temperature effect on CH₄ emissions was not related to termite movement in and out of a mound but probably a direct effect of temperature on methanogenesis in the termite gut. Fluxes in the wet season were 5-26-fold greater than those in the dry season. A multiple stepwise regression model including mound temperature and mound water content described 70-99% of the seasonal variations in CH₄ fluxes for different species. CH₄ fluxes from M. nervosus, which was the most abundant mound-building termite species at our sites, had significantly lower fluxes than the other three species measured. Our data demonstrate that CH₄ flux estimates could result in large under- or over-estimation of CH₄ emissions from termites if the diurnal, seasonal and species specific variations are not accounted for, especially when flux data are extrapolated to landscape scales.     

Nitrous oxide and methane fluxes during the growing season from cultivated peat soils,peaty marl and gyttja clay under different cropping systems

Drainage of peatlands affects the fluxes of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Organic soils used for agriculture contribute a large proportion of anthropogenic GHG emissions, and on-farm mitigation options are important. This field study investigated whether choice of a cropping system can be used to mitigate emissions of N₂O and influence CH₄ fluxes from cultivated organic and carbon-rich soils during the growing season. Ten different sites in southern Sweden representing peat soils, peaty marl and gyttja clay, with a range of different soil properties, were used for on-site measurements of N₂O and CH₄ fluxes. The fluxes during the growing season from soils under two different crops grown in the same field and same environmental conditions were monitored. Crop intensities varied from grasslands to intensive potato cultivation. The results showed no difference in median seasonal N₂O emissions between the two crops compared. Median seasonal emissions ranged from 0 to 919?µg?N₂O?m^?2?h^?1, with peaks on individual sampling occasions of up to 3317?µg?N₂O?m^?2?h^?1. Nitrous oxide emissions differed widely between sites, indicating that soil properties are a regulating factor. However, pH was the only soil factor that correlated with N₂O emissions (negative exponential correlation). The type of crop grown on the soil did not influence CH₄ fluxes. Median seasonal CH₄ flux from the different sites ranged from uptake of 36?µg CH₄?m^?2?h^?1 to release of 4.5?µg?CH₄?m^?2?h^?1. From our results, it was concluded that farmers cannot mitigate N₂O emissions during the growing season or influence CH₄ fluxes by changing the cropping system in the field.     

太湖地区不同水旱轮作方式下稻季甲烷和氧化亚氮排放研究

为准确编制我国稻田温室气体排放清单及制定合理减排措施提供基础数据,选择太湖地区典型水稻种植区江苏省苏州市,研究设计了休闲水稻(对照,CK)、紫云英水稻(T1)、黑麦草水稻(T2)、小麦水稻(T3)和油菜水稻(T4)5种水旱轮作方式,采用静态箱气相色谱法,开展了不同水旱轮作方式下水稻生长季田间甲烷(CH4)和氧化亚氮(N2O)排放监测试验。试验结果表明:不同水旱轮作方式下水稻生长季CH4排放通量呈先升高后降低的变化趋势,CH4排放峰值出现在水稻生育前期,移栽至有效分蘖临界叶龄期CH4累积排放量占全生育期排放总量的比例为65%~81%,而N2O仅在水稻烤田期间有明显排放。水旱轮作方式对稻季CH4和N2O排放有极显著(P 0.01)影响,CH4季节总排放量表现为T1(283.2 kg.hm 2)CK(139.5 kg.hm 2)T3(123.4kg.hm 2)T4(114.7 kg.hm 2)T2(100.8 kg.hm 2),N2O季节总排放量顺序为T1 T4 T3 T2 CK,依次为1.06kg.hm 2、0.87 kg.hm 2、0.81 kg.hm 2、0.72 kg.hm 2和0.53 kg.hm 2。T1处理稻季排放CH4和N2O产生的增温潜势最高[7 396 kg(CO2).hm 2],显著(P 0.05)高于其他处理,比CK[3 646 kg(CO2).hm 2]增加103%,T2[2 735kg(CO2).hm 2]较CK减少25%(P 0.05)。紫云英水稻轮作方式增加了太湖地区水稻生长季的温室效应。     

Effect of rice straw application on CH4 emission from paddy fields

The effect of rice straw (RS) incorporated at the time of plowing in the previous cr–p season on CH₄ emission from rice paddies was investigated in a pot experiment. Rice straw that incorporated just before transplanting of rice seedlings (June) into a paddy field was collected after the harvest (October) and at the beginning of the next cropping period (May). Methane emission rates from the rice-planted pots with the application of fresh RS, RS collected in October. and RS collected in Mayas well as the pots without RS application were measured using the chamber method. The composition of organic constituents in the three kinds of RS was estimated by the proximate analysis. The cumulative amount of CH₄ emitted during the first 50–d period was lower in the order of the pots with RS collected in May, pots with RS collected in October, and pots with fresh RS. The cumulative amount of CH₄ emitted throughout the rice growth period from the pots with fresh RS and with RS collected in October was significantly larger while that from the pots with RS collected in May did not differ statistically compared with the total CH₄ emission from the pots without RS. These results suggested that there was an overall decrease in the amount of organic constituents in RS based on the large differences in T-C content and similar composition of organic constituents between the fresh RS and RS collected in May. Significant effect of RS continuously applied during the previous cropping period on the increase in CH₄ emission was discussed.     

Contribution of fallow periods between rice crops to seasonal GHG emissions: effect of water and tillage management

ABSTRACT

Irrigated rice cultivation is a major source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agriculture. Methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) are emitted not only throughout the growing season but also in the fallow period between crops. A study was conducted for two transition periods between rice crops (dry to wet season transition and wet to dry season transition) in the Philippines to investigate the effect of water and tillage management on CH₄ and N₂O emissions as well as on soil nitrate and ammonium. Management treatments between rice crops included (1) continuous flooding (F), (2) soil drying (D), (3) soil drying with aerobic tillage (D + T), and (4) soil drying and wetting (D + W). The static closed chamber method was used to measure CH₄ and N₂O fluxes.

Soil nitrate accumulated and N₂O was emitted in treatments with soil drying. Nitrate disappeared while ammonium gradually increased after the soil was flooded during land preparation, indicating net nitrogen mineralization. N₂O emissions were highest in both transition periods in D + W (437 and 645 µg N₂O m^?2 h^?1). Methane emissions were significant in only the F treatment. The highest global warming potential (GWP) in the transition between rice crops occurred in F, with CH₄ contributing almost 100% to the GWP. The GWP from other treatments was lower than F, with about 60–99% of the GWP attributed to N₂O emissions in treatments with soil drying. The GWP in the transition between rice crops represented up to 26% of the total GWP from harvest to harvest. This study demonstrates that the transition period can be an important source of GHG emissions with relative importance of CH₄ and N₂O depending on the soil water regime. Therefore, the transition period should not be disregarded when estimating GHG emissions for rice cropping systems.     

土壤质地、温度和Eh对稻田甲烷排放的影响

本文报道在田间条件下,土南地,温度和Ｅｈ影响稻田ＣＨ４排放通量的研究结果。中国科学院封丘生态试验站的小区试验表明,在当地常规水分管理即间歇灌溉条件下,供试小区和妥田的ＣＨ４平均排放通量仅为０．１６－１．８６ｍ ｇＣＨ４／ｍ＾２ｈ。     

Decreasing of methanogenic activity in paddy fields via lowering ponding water temperature: A modeling investigation

Methane (CH₄) is a potent greenhouse gas and the huge CH₄ fluxes emitted from paddy fields can prejudice the eco-compatibility of rice cultivation. CH₄ production in submerged rice crops is known to be highly influenced by water temperature. Hence, lowering ponding water temperature (LPWT) could be an option to mitigate CH₄ emissions from paddy environments when it is possible either to irrigate with slightly colder water or to increase ponding water depth. However, paddy soil is a complex environment in which many processes are simultaneously influenced by temperature, leading to a difficult prediction of LPWT effects. For this reason, LPWT efficiency is here theoretically investigated with a one-dimensional process-based model that simulates the vertical and temporal dynamics of water temperature in soil and the fate of chemical compounds that influence CH₄ emissions. The model is validated with literature measured data of CH₄ emissions from a paddy field under time-variable temperature regime. Based on modeling results, LPWT appears promising since the simulated reduction of CH₄ emissions reaches about −12% and −49% for an LPWT equal to −5 °C during the ripening stage only (last 30 days of growing season, when rice is less sensitive to temperature variations) and −2 °C over the whole growing season, respectively. LPWT affects CH₄ emissions either directly (decreasing methanogenic activity), indirectly (decreasing activity of bacteria using alternative electron acceptors), or both. The encouraging results provide the theoretical ground for further laboratory and field studies aimed to investigate the LPWT feasibility in paddy environments.     

Methane emissions from paddy fields in Bali Island,Indonesia

Abstract

Methane emission rates from plots with and without fertilizer and rice straw application, and growth of two rice varieties (an improved variety, IR74 or IR64, and a local variety, Krueng Aceh) in two Indonesian paddy fields (Inceptisol and Alfisol soils of volcanic ash origin) were measured every week throughout the growth period in the first and the second cropping seasons, 1994. The CH₄ emission rates from the fields were similar between the two varieties. The effect of chemical fertilizer on the increase of the emissions was observed only in the Tabanan paddy field for the plots treated with rice straw. Application of rice straw increased the CH₄ emission rates. The mean rates of CH₄ emission were 1.37-2.13 mg CH₄?C m^?2 h^?1 for the plots without rice straw and 2.14–3.62 mg CH₄?C m^?2 h^?1 for the plots with rice straw application in the Alfisol plots, and 2.32–3.32 mg CH₄ -C m-2 h-1 for the plots without rice straw and 4.18–6.35 mg CH₄?C m^?2 h^?1 for the plots with rice straw application in the Inceptisol plots, respectively. Total amounts of CH₄ emitted during the growth period were 3.9–6.8 and 2.6–3.3 g CH₄?C m^?2 for the Alfisol plots and 6.9–10.7 and 4.2–5.8 g CH₄?C m^?2 for the Inceptisol plots with and without rice straw application, respectively. These findings suggested that CH₄ emission from tropical paddy fields with soils of volcanic ash origin is low.     

Methane mitigation in flooded Louisiana rice fields

Summary A field experiment was conducted to determine whether selected nitrification inhibitors (encapsulated calcium carbide and dicyandiamide) and SO _inf4 ^sup-2 -containing compounds [(NH₄)₂SO₄ and Na₂SO₄] had mitigating effects on CH₄ emissions from flooded rice. Microplots were established within a rice bay drill-seeded with the Texmont rice cultivar and CH₄ fluxes were measured over the main rice cropping season. Methane emissions over the 77-day sampling period were approximately 230, 240, 260, 290, 310, and 360 kg CH₄ ha^-1 from the calcium carbide, Na₂SO₄-rate II, Na₂SO₄-rate I, (NH₄)₂SO₄, dicyandiamide, and urea (control) treatments, respectively. Reductions in CH₄ evolution, compared to the control, ranged from 14 to 35%, depending on treatment. The selected inhibitors and SO _inf4 ^sup-2 -containing compounds appear to be effective in reducing the CH₄ emitted from flooded rice fields.     

Validation of the DNDC-Rice model by using CH4 and N2O flux data from rice cultivated in pots under alternate wetting and drying irrigation management

The DNDC (DeNitrification-DeComposition)-Rice model, one of the most advanced process-based models for the estimation of greenhouse gas emissions from paddy fields, has been discussed mostly in terms of the reproducibility of observed methane (CH₄) emissions from Japanese rice paddies, but the model has not yet been validated for tropical rice paddies under alternate wetting and drying (AWD) irrigation management, a water-saving technique. We validated the model by using CH₄ and nitrous oxide (N₂O) flux data from rice in pots cultivated under AWD irrigation management in a screen-house at the International Rice Research Institute (Los Baños, the Philippines). After minor modification and adjustment of the model to the experimental irrigation conditions, we calculated grain yield and straw production. The observed mean daily CH₄ fluxes from the continuous flooding (CF) and AWD pots were 4.49 and 1.22?kg?C?ha^?1?day^?1, respectively, and the observed mean daily N₂O fluxes from the pots were 0.105 and 34.1?g?N?ha^?1?day^?1, respectively. The root-mean-square errors, indicators of simulation error, of daily CH₄ fluxes from CF and AWD pots were calculated as 1.76 and 1.86?kg?C?ha^?1?day^?1, respectively, and those of daily N₂O fluxes were 2.23 and 124?g?N?ha^?1?day^?1, respectively. The simulated gross CH₄ emissions for CF and AWD from the puddling stage (2 days before transplanting) to harvest (97 days after transplanting) were 417 and 126?kg?C?ha^?1, respectively; these values were 9.8% lower and 0.76% higher, respectively, than the observed values. The simulated gross N₂O emissions during the same period were 0.0279 and 1.45?kg?N?ha^?1 for CF and AWD, respectively; these values were respectively 87% and 29% lower than the observed values. The observed total global warming potential (GWP) of AWD resulting from the CH₄ and N₂O emissions was approximately one-third of that in the CF treatment. The simulated GWPs of both CF and AWD were close to the observed values despite the discrepancy in N₂O emissions, because N₂O emissions contributed much less than CH₄ emissions to the total GWP. These results suggest that the DNDC-Rice model can be used to estimate CH₄ emission and total GWP from tropical paddy fields under both CF and AWD conditions.     

水稻植株特性对稻田甲烷排放的影响及其机制的研究进展

水稻是我国最主要的口粮作物,稻田是重要温室气体甲烷的主要排放源之一。水稻植株特性既是水稻产量形成的关键因子,也是稻田甲烷排放的主要影响因子。但是,至今关于水稻植株对稻田甲烷排放的调控效应及其机制仍存在许多不一致的认识。为此,本文从形态特征、生理生态特征、植株-环境互作等方面,对现有的相关研究进行了综合论述。水稻地上部形态特征如分蘖数、株高、叶面积等对稻田甲烷排放的影响的研究结果不尽相同,起关键作用的是地下系统。优化光合产物分配在持续淹水的情况下可以减少稻田甲烷排放。提高水稻生物量在低碳土壤增加稻田甲烷排放,但在高碳土壤下降低甲烷排放。本文还明确了相关研究现状和存在的问题。在此基础上,作者认为未来应加强水稻根系形态及其生理特征,以及水稻植株-土壤环境(尤其是水分管理和养分管理)互作对稻田甲烷产生、氧化和排放影响的研究,在方法上应加强微区试验和大田试验的结合,并开展植株和稻田的碳氮互作效应及其机制研究,为高产低碳排放的水稻品种选育和低碳稻作模式创新提供理论参考和技术指导。     

Daytime,Temporal, and Seasonal Variations of N2O Emissions in an Upland Cropping System of the Humid Tropics

Abstract

Nitrous oxide (N₂O) contributes to global climate change, and its emission from soil–crop systems depend on soil, environmental, and anthropogenic factors. Thus, we evaluated the variability of N₂O emissions measured by microchambers (cross section: 184 cm²) from a groundnut–fallow–maize–fallow cropping system of the humid tropics. The crops received inorganic nitrogen (N) plus crop residues (NC), inorganic N alone as ammonium sulfate (RN), and half of the inorganic N along with crop residues and chicken manure (N_1/2CM), amounting for the crop rotation to 322, 180, and 400 kg N ha^?1 yr^?1, respectively. The N₂O fluxes during the groundnut–maize crop rotation were log‐normally distributed, and the frequency distributions were positively skewed. Daytime changes in N₂O fluxes were inconsistent, and the 50% of total N₂O emission during the 12 h measurement periods was attained earlier under maize (～11∶00 h) than groundnut covers (～13∶00 h). Spatial variability in each treatment with eight gas chambers was large but smaller during the cropping periods than the fallow, indicating masking efficiency of crop covers for the soil heterogeneity that was accelerated presumably by antecedent climatic variables. The temporal variability of N₂O emissions was also large (coefficients of variation, CV, ranged from 60 to 81%), involving both input differences between treatments and measurement periods. As such, the relative deviation from the annual mean of total N₂O emission was high during the period after a large N application with a maximum of +480%, due to addition of chicken manure. The seasonal contribution of summer and monsoon to N₂O emissions was insignificant. However, intensive rainfall negatively (?0.65**) and the amount of added N from either source positively (0.83***) correlated with the integrated N₂O emissions, and those were exponential. Results suggest that around noon (12∶00 h) gas collection could represent well the daily N₂O fluxes, increasing the number or size of the gas chambers could minimize the large variability, and mainly the rainfall and N inputs regulated its emissions in the humid tropics of Malaysia.     

High-Time Resolution Analysis of Diel Variation in Methane Emission from Flooded Rice Fields

Methane (CH₄) emission from flooded rice fields was measured hourly over 24 h for rice (Oryza sativa L.) seasons in 2008 and 2009. The objectives of this study were to identify typical diel variation in CH₄ emission and to estimate the best time of day for optimum extrapolation of daily CH₄ emission. Our results showed distinct diel variation in CH₄ emission, which exhibited a maximum at 14:00–15:00 and a minimum at midnight. About 5.2–5.6% of total CH₄ emitted per day (110–160 mg CH₄ m^?2 d^?1) was released at 14:00–15:00. The diel pattern of CH₄ emission resembled that of air temperature (T_a). The T_a coupled with solar radiation could cause a difference in partial pressure of CH₄ (DPPC) through the gas conduit of the plant. The best extrapolation of daily CH₄ emission was achieved with data observed at 10:00–11:00. We concluded that DPPC-induced CH₄ emission is an important mechanism causing diel variation.     

Variability of methane emissions from an old landfill over different time‐scales

Methane (CH₄) emission patterns were investigated at an old landfill in northern Germany during a 2‐year campaign over three different time‐scales (seasonal, daily and diurnal) using modified static chambers. Emissions were not uniformly distributed over the cover soil, but occurred through localized preferential pathways (hotspots). The range of emissions from the 14 investigated hotspots at any one measurement event was large, reflecting large spatial variability of emissions from the landfill. In addition, the individual hotspots showed a large temporal variability of emissions (0–9.7 mol CH₄ day^?1 over a range of 20 months). Environmental variables effectively modified either the biological process of methane oxidation in the soil (temperature) or the physical gas transport process (moisture and atmospheric pressure). During the seasonal campaign, emissions generally were greater in winter (moister and cooler) and smaller during the summer period (dryer and warmer). Under dry conditions, emissions were independent of soil moisture but correlated negatively with soil temperature. A positive correlation of emissions with moisture was found for moisture levels relating to a matric potential of ?30 to ?6 kPa, reflecting impeded diffusive oxygen ingress and hence reduced methanotrophic activity. Under very moist conditions, more than ?6 kPa, emissions were negatively correlated with moisture content because of decreased gas permeability in the soil. In addition, a pressure decrease preceding the measurement was at all time‐scales often related to large emissions, whereas constant or rising pressure prior to measurement resulted in small emissions. The particular importance of the different effects depends on the type of gas transport at the specific emission location and whether it is advective or diffusive gas transport or a mixture of both, and varies at the temporal scale both between and within locations.     

意大利中部地区粘土稻田干湿交替减少CH4排放但诱发N2O排放高峰

Reducing CH₄ and N₂O emissions from rice cropping systems while sustaining production levels with less water requires a better understanding of the key processes involved. Alternate wetting and drying (AWD) irrigation is one promising practice that has been shown to reduce CH₄ emissions. However, little is known about the impact of this practice on N₂O emissions, in particular under Mediterranean climate. To close this knowledge gap, we assessed how AWD influenced grain yield, fluxes and annual budgets of CH₄ and N₂O emissions, and global warming potential (GWP) in Italian rice systems over a 2-year period. Overall, a larger GWP was observed under AWD, as a result of high N₂O emissions which offset reductions in CH₄ emissions. In the first year, with 70% water reduction, the yields were reduced by 33%, CH₄ emissions decreased by 97%,while N₂O emissions increased by more than 5-foldunder AWD as compared to PF;in the second year, with a 40% watersaving,the reductions of rice yields and CH₄ emissions (13% and 11%, respectively) were not significant, but N₂O fluxes more than doubled. The transition from anaerobic to aerobic soil conditions resulted in the highest N₂O fluxes under AWD. The duration of flooding, transition to aerobic conditions, water levelabove the soil surface, and the relative timing between fertilization and flooding were the main drivers affecting greenhouse gas mitigation potential under AWD and should be carefully planned through site-specific management options.     

Methane emissions from different vegetation zones in a Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau wetland

We measured methane (CH₄) emissions in the Luanhaizi wetland, a typical alpine wetland on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, China, during the plant growth season (early July to mid-September) in 2002. Our aim was to quantify the spatial and temporal variation of CH₄ flux and to elucidate key factors in this variation. Static chamber measurements of CH₄ flux were made in four vegetation zones along a gradient of water depth. There were three emergent-plant zones (Hippuris-dominated; Scirpus-dominated; and Carex-dominated) and one submerged-plant zone (Potamogeton-dominated). The smallest CH₄ flux (seasonal mean=33.1 mg CH₄ m⁻² d⁻¹) was observed in the Potamogeton-dominated zone, which occupied about 74% of the total area of the wetland. The greatest CH₄ flux (seasonal mean=214 mg CH₄ m⁻² d⁻¹) was observed in the Hippuris-dominated zone, in the second-deepest water area. CH₄ flux from three zones (excluding the Carex-dominated zone) showed a marked diurnal change and decreased dramatically under dark conditions. Light intensity had a major influence on the temporal variation in CH₄ flux, at least in three of the zones. Methane fluxes from all zones increased during the growing season with increasing aboveground biomass. CH₄ flux from the Scirpus-dominated zone was significantly lower than in the other emergent-plant zones despite the large biomass, because the root and rhizome intake ports for CH₄ transport in the dominant species were distributed in shallower and more oxidative soil than occupied in the other zones. Spatial and temporal variation in CH₄ flux from the alpine wetland was determined by the vegetation zone. Among the dominant species in each zone, there were variations in the density and biomass of shoots, gas-transport system, and root-rhizome architecture. The CH₄ flux from a typical alpine wetland on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau was as high as those of other boreal and alpine wetlands.     

Is alternate wetting and drying irrigation technique enough to reduce methane emission from a tropical rice paddy?

Combination of a pre-season wet soil condition and rice straw incorporation just before transplanting, which is typical for a tropical rice double cropping, can induce a flash of methane (CH₄) emission shortly after the transplanting. The conventional practice of alternate wetting and drying (AWD) irrigation technique that typically starts at 21 days after transplanting (DAT) can hardly reduce this emission because the soil become methanogenic before the onset of AWD treatment. Field experiments were conducted in Central Luzon, Philippines, during the 2014–2017 dry rice seasons to examine the effects of the timing of rice straw/stubble incorporation on the efficacy of AWD in reducing the CH₄ emission. Two treatments of the timing of stubble incorporation were stubbles incorporated during the start of wet land preparation (S1) and stubbles incorporated during the dry fallow tillage (S2). For the water management, we compared two treatments: continuous flooding (CF) and AWD with – 15 cm threshold for irrigation. The AWD under S2 was implemented earlier at 10 DAT. We observed a significant interaction (p < 0.01) between effects of AWD and straw management on CH₄ emissions; the seasonal total CH₄ emission was reduced by AWD compared with CF by 73% under S2, while the reduction was <20% under S1. The AWD significantly (p < 0.05) increased the nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions by 47 and 48% relative to CF under S1 and S2, respectively. The global warming potential (GWP, CH₄ + N₂O) and yield-scaled GWP were still substantially lower by 62 and 59%, respectively, in AWD than in CF under S2, but the reduction was not realized under S1 due to the relatively smaller CH₄ reduction and increased N₂O emission. The results confirm that pre-season aerobic stubble decomposition and earlier implementation of AWD enhanced AWD’s mitigation potential in reducing substantially the CH₄ emission from the tropical rice double-cropping system.     

Carbon sequestration in agricultural soils in the Cerrado region of the Brazilian Amazon

The introduction of crop management practices after conversion of Amazon Cerrado into cropland influences soil C stocks and has direct and indirect consequences on greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions. The aim of this study was to quantify soil C sequestration, through the evaluation of the changes in C stocks, as well as the GHG fluxes (N₂O and CH₄) during the process of conversion of Cerrado into agricultural land in the southwestern Amazon region, comparing no-tillage (NT) and conventional tillage (CT) systems. We collected samples from soils and made gas flux measurements in July 2004 (the dry season) and in January 2005 (the wet season) at six areas: Cerrado, CT cultivated with rice for 1 year (1CT) and 2 years (2CT), and NT cultivated with soybean for 1 year (1NT), 2 years (2NT) and 3 years (3NT), in each case after a 2-year period of rice under CT. Soil samples were analyzed in both seasons for total organic C and bulk density. The soil C stocks, corrected for a mass of soil equivalent to the 0–30-cm layer under Cerrado, indicated that soils under NT had generally higher C storage compared to native Cerrado and CT soils. The annual C accumulation rate in the conversion of rice under CT into soybean under NT was 0.38 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. Although CO₂ emissions were not used in the C sequestration estimates to avoid double counting, we did include the fluxes of this gas in our discussion. In the wet season, CO₂ emissions were twice as high as in the dry season and the highest N₂O emissions occurred under the NT system. There were no CH₄ emissions to the atmosphere (negative fluxes) and there were no significant seasonal variations. When N₂O and CH₄ emissions in C-equivalent were subtracted (assuming that the measurements made on 4 days were representative of the whole year), the soil C sequestration rate of the conversion of rice under CT into soybean under NT was 0.23 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. Although there were positive soil C sequestration rates, our results do not present data regarding the full C balance in soil management changes in the Amazon Cerrado.