Characteristics and classification of anthropogenic soils in the Osnabrück area,Germany

Soils in the area around Osnabrück/Northwest Germany have been strongly influenced by man. The classification of these soils based on the German and international classification systems is problematical. Eight representative soils, two Anthrosols (plaggic and hortic), four soils affected by the coal and steel industry and consisting of distinct monosubstrata (coal and ore mining heaps, slag heap, sludge area) as well as two deposits of heterogeneous waste components (reclaimed wet land, filled quarry) were investigated. The sites are assessed in relation to their contamination by heavy metals and PAH as well as suitability for plant growth. An attempt was made to classify the soils using the current classification of World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB), German Soil Science Society Classification, FAO and the USA. These systems enables a satisfactory classification of two Anthrosols compared with the other soils. In the US taxonomy, the pedogenesis of technological substrata was not considered. In the FAO taxonomy, it is not acceptable to term all soils as Urbic Anthrosols without any further differentiation. This differentiation was enabled in both the WRB and the German taxonomy. In the WRB taxonomy, however, only anthropic subunits of the Regosols are included. An improvement could be achieved by the introduction of comparable subunits of the Arenosols, Durisols, Gleysols, and Leptosols. In the German taxonomy (normally soil and substrata are classified separately), the induction of toxic subunits in the presence of high soil contamination influencing the edaphon would be helpful. Furthermore, soils hardened by silica should be classified as respective varieties.     

Strengths and weaknesses of the new classification system of Russian soils

Strengths and weaknesses of the new classification system of Russian soils are discussed. It is argued that the diversity of Russian soils and the ecological conditions of their formation are incompletely represented in this system. In particular, several specific groups of soils in the south of European Russia cannot be adequately classified within the framework of the new classification system. Several important tasks have to be solved before its adoption as an official document. First, it is necessary to compile correlation tables between the soil taxa of the previous classification (1977) and the new classification (2004). Second, a key for the field diagnostics of soils within the framework of the new system has to be developed. Third, the soils that are missing in the new system have to be introduced into it.     

Diagnostic properties,horizons, soils and landscapes

For the classification of soil individuals such properties or horizons are used as diagnostic ones, which – as indicators for the weakest or strongest consequent transformation of the parent material and for the complementary translocation of transformation products – are assumed to reflect best the soil genesis. It is discussed how far the FAO-Unesco system satisfies this pretension. Like soil individuals as metamorphic figures of rock or sediment material soil landscapes can be considered as such of rock or sediment bodies (geomorphic units). Since both are coined by principally the same processes, the soils reflecting best the extent of consequent transformations and complementary translocations of/in the geomorphic units can be used as diagnostic ones in the classification of soil landscapes. Principles of such a taxonomy and its relation to that of soil individuals are discussed, especially in view of the ?intrazonal”? soils.     

Micromorphology of diagnostic horizons in aridic soils (complementary to the new classification system of soils of Russia)

The micromorphological data on aridic soils are far from numerous; therefore, the information presented here contributes to the development of pedogenetic ideas and characterization of diagnostic horizons and genetic properties in substantive-genetic classification systems. The diversity, functioning, and resilience of aridic soils are basically determined by the properties of their topsoils, which are regarded as recent dynamic formations as opposed to subsoils that formed under a different paleoclimatic environment; topsoil properties are more important for soil classification. Each of the two upper horizons in the new system of soil classification (the light-humus and xero-humus) has the same micromorphological features in different soils; however, in a sequence of soils, some individual micromorphological properties were revealed that indicate increasing aridity. The micromorphological properties of topsoils make it possible to identify the mechanisms of certain phenomena: aeolian deposition, structural rearrangement, the dynamics of secondary carbonates, and cryptosolonetzic manifestations.     

冀北地区盐碱化土壤系统分类的归属研究

采用《中国土壤系统分类（第三版）》和《中国土壤系统分类——土族与土系建立原则与标准（试用稿）》对冀北地区7个盐碱化土样进行了分类,共划分了4个土纲,6个亚纲,6个土类,7个亚类,建立了平地脑包系等7个土系。研究结果表明,系统分类亚类与发生分类亚类参比并无对应关系;部分盐碱化土壤并未在系统分类高级单元中体现盐碱特征,而在基层分类中对盐分含量和积累位置进行补充,表明系统分类的划分指标要求更严格,分类更标准。最后讨论了盐碱化土壤诊断层、诊断特性和土壤分析方法的确定等问题。     

Automorphic taiga soils of the Sredneobskaya Lowland

The morphology of the profile, some chemical properties, and particle-size distribution of the automorphic soils developed from lacustrine-alluvial loamy-clayey deposits in the Sredneobskaya Lowland are considered. The soils of the West Siberian middle taiga zone remain poorly studied. A comparison of our data with data on podzolic soils in the northeastern part of European Russia and with diagnostic characteristics of the soil type of svetlozems included in the new classification system of Russian soils (2004) allows to argue that the studied soils cannot be classified as podzolic soils; most of them also do not fit the diagnostic criteria of svetlozems. The obtained data on the particle-size distribution in the studied soils do not agree with the concept of the sedimentation zonality in the West Siberian Plain.     

Inclusion of soils and soil-like bodies of urban territories into the Russian soil classification system

The results of the Internet discussion on the classification of urban soils aimed at evaluating their possible inclusion into the modern Russian soil classification system adopted by a wide range of specialists are presented. The first step was to address the urban diagnostic horizons as the basis for identifying soil types according to the rules of the Russian soil classification. New diagnostic horizons were proposed for urban soils: urbic (UR), filled compost-mineral (RAT), and filled peat (RT). The combination of these horizons with other diagnostic horizons and layers of technogenic materials correspond to different soil types. At the subtype level, the diagnostic properties (qualifiers) that may reflect both natural phenomena (gley, alkalinity) and technogenic impacts on the soils (urbistratified; phosphatic; or poorly expressed urban—ur, rat, rt) are used. Some corrections were proposed for the system of parent materials in urban environments. Urban soils formerly described in another nomenclature—urbanozems, urbiquasizems, and culturozems—are correlated with the taxa in all the trunks of the system. The proposals accepted can be used for the next updated version of the new Russian soil classification system.     

Evidence of plaggen soils in European North Russia (Arkhangelsk region)

To clarify whether a particular group of soils of Archangelsk region (European N Russia) with humus‐rich topsoils exceeding the plowing zone supports an anthropogenic formation, four exemplary profiles were investigated. The investigation sites are characterized by distinct elevated surfaces, and the soils show thick toplayers of up to 60 cm with enrichment of soil organic matter and artifacts like brick, charcoal, and peat fragments, all indicating an anthropogenic origin. Increased phytolith amounts and high P contents of up to 800 mg kg^–1 citric acid–soluble P and up to 1,400 mg kg^–1 total P in the top horizons support an anthropogenic influence. These properties are very similar to the Plagganthrepts of NW Europe. The same is true regarding the main management aims: increasing soil fertility and overcoming the need of bedding materials. Having the required depths of the anthropogenic topsoil, the properties of the soils of the Archangelsk region allow a classification as Agrozems (Russian classification), Plaggenesche (German classification), and Plagganthrepts (US taxonomy). Since the high base saturation of the topsoil excludes a designation as plaggic horizon, the topsoil has to be considered as terric horizon, which leads to a classification as Terric Anthrosol according to WRB.     

Classification of soils of Russia: Discussion on the internet site

The work of the Dokuchaev Soil Institute site on soil classification during the last three years is analyzed. The main subject of the discussion is the Classification and Diagnostics of Soils of Russia (2004) as compared to the classification of 1977. The website’s visitors, mainly soil scientists performing survey under contracts or involved in organizing environmental monitoring consult the diagnostics and names of their objects according to the new classification. The principles and structure of the classification system and criteria for distinguishing the basic taxa are accepted by practically everybody; the proposals on the correction of the diagnostics of soil horizons and their characteristics are made for a wide spectrum of soils. Many of the suggestions were taken into account by the authors in the last edition of this classification (2008). The users of the site are especially interested in anthropogenically modified soils, primarily in urban soils and soils disturbed by mining operations. Among the site’s visitors are many students and postgraduates, who are especially active during the examination periods.     

A new classification system of soils of Russia: Preliminary results of discussion

The first version of the profile-genetic classification system of the soils of Russia published in 1997 was discussed by soil scientists and verified in different ways. As a result, a number of changes and additions were made in the new version of 2004. Many comments concerning this version were obtained from the regional divisions of the Dokuchaev Society of Soil Scientists, as well as from specialists (papers in Eurasian Soil Science and discussion on the Internet). The authors of the classification system consider it reasonable to analyze the results of the discussion concerning both the principles and nomenclature and some groups of soils.     

Soil material classification for paddy soils in Japan

In view of the importance of soil material characteristics in determining paddy soil capability, a method of classification for soil materials was proposed. In working out the method special attention was paid to making it practically applicable, for the need is great for such a method of ready practical applicability especially in the alluvial soil areas in which most Japanese paddy soils occur.

An X-ray fluorescence spectrographic method for the total chemical analysis of soil materials proved satisfactory for routine use in terms of accuracy and time. Nine major elements (Si, Fe, Al, Ca, Mg, Mn, Ti, K, P) were analyzed and they were taken to represent the chemical nature of the soil material. The total chemical composition was combined with mechanical composition and subjected to data processing.

To avoid redundancy in information, 2 mutually independent principal components were extracted, which appear to represent different aspects of soil material features. From the 2 principal component scores taxonomic distance was computed as a similarity coefficient for use in numerical taxonomy.

By means of numerical taxonomy 8 Soil material classes were set up, each of which was characterized in terms of texture, base status, weatherable mineral reserve, etc. In order to facilitate objective placement of a new sample into one of the classes set up, discriminant functions were derived for all pairs of the 8 material classes. A figure showing the discriminant space that corresponds to the discriminant functions was prepared to make the practice of discrimination easy.

The 8 soil material classes appear to represent major varieties of paddy soil materials in Japan. The use of the soil material classes as a basis, of “soil family” separation m soil surveys would improve the homogeneity of the lower taxonomic units (“soil series”) and make their interpretation easier and more correct in relation to soil capability assessment.     

Human-altered and human-transported (HAHT) soils in the U.S. soil classification system

ABSTRACT

Human-altered and human-transported (HAHT) soils are widespread across the globe and are concentrated near where people live and work. Although some of the HAHT soils are significant because they can be hazardous to human, animal, and plant health, most are not mapped or classified to the same extent as agricultural soils. The purpose of this article is to discuss the occurrence, types, and importance of HAHT soils and to document the historical and proposed classification of HAHT soils in Soil Taxonomy. There are two main forms of materials that define HAHT soils: human-altered soils formed in human-altered materials (HAM) from the soil surface to 50 cm (or to bedrock if shallower) or more and human-transported soils formed in human-transported materials (HTM) from the soil surface to 50 cm (or to bedrock if shallower) or more. The HAHT soils mainly occur in urban areas, transportation corridors, mined lands, landfills, filled shallow water, and agricultural areas on anthropogenic landforms. Hazards include danger from radioactivity, pollution, content of hazardous artifacts, or presence on unstable landforms that may fail during heavy rains or earthquakes. The HAHT soils are extensive, and their extent is growing. In the past, few HAHT soils were described or classified adequately because the U.S. Soil Taxonomy system was established for agricultural and other naturally occurring soils. However, HAHT soils are now being recognized and classified in many soil classification systems at very high levels. A new soil order is proposed for U.S. Soil Taxonomy that would include the most obvious profoundly and intentionally altered HAHT soils. A discussion and justification is given for an unofficial proposal. Input will be collected from international groups of scientists, and modifications of the unofficial proposal are expected. The long-term result of establishing a new soil order will be to enable proper classification, allocation, and mapping of HAHT soils worldwide.     

An appraisal of the problems in classifying saline-sodic soils of the indo-gangetic plain in NW India

Most of the salt-affected soils of the Indo-Gangetic plain in NW India do not find suitable places in the 1970 U.S. system of soil classification. According to the current class definitions, soils with high salts, ESP, pH, chromas and yellower hues key out as Typic or Aquic Calciorthids, Camborthids and Haplustalfs which does not spell out their saline-sodic nature. For land-use recommendations, the authors believe it will be useful to set these soils apart at some high categoric level in the system.It is proposed that the structural requirements for the natric horizon be modified to include horizons with high ESP (? 40) but having simple blocky structure with or without tongues of eluvial material. New subgroups, viz. Natric, within the orders of Inceptisols, Alfisols and Aridisols is suggested for the high sodium-saturated soils lacking natric horizons. For similar practical considerations, the high concentrations of salts in soils when associated with high ESP pose problems in leaching and consequently new subgroups, viz. Salic and Salic Natric, within the orders of Aridisols and Alfisols are suggested.The modifications proposed not only place more emphasis on the saline-sodic nature of these soils but also result in better groupings for practical land use.     

Properties of soils and soil-like bodies in the Vorkuta area

The specific features of the formation of soils and soil-like bodies on technogenic substrates in Vorkuta—a polar city specializing in coal mining—are characterized. According to the new Russian soil classification system, these soils are classified as urbanozems (urban soils) and constructozems (soil-like bodies constructed by humans); the latter are subdivided into recreazems (soil-like bodies of recreation zones) and replantozems (soil-like bodies of reclaimed urban areas with planted vegetation). They are characterized by the increased content of heavy metals and by some alkalization of the upper soil horizons in comparison with the natural background soils. The benz(a)pyrene content in most of the soil samples exceeds the maximum permissible concentration (MPC). The maximum levels of the soil contamination with benz(a)pyrene reach 80 MPCs. According to the total contamination index calculated relative to the background concentrations of the major contaminants, the upper horizons of the investigated soils and soil-like bodies are qualified as ecologically hazardous and extremely hazardous bodies.     

Higher levels of description—approaches to the micromorphological characterisation of Russian soils

Several attempts were made in the past to identify high-level soil microfabrics, following the ideas of Kubiëna. They resulted in proposals to identify specific fabric types, soil materials, somas, formations, or morphotypes, based on the combinations of micromorphological characteristics of the studied horizons of soils. These units present complex (integrated, typical, and central) micromorphological images of soil horizons or materials. Using the available information on Russian soils, the author defined the “micromorphotypes” of soil horizons by illustrating this approach by two examples of simple and complicated genetic horizons. Emphasis was put on genetic and diagnostic aspects of micromorphological interpretations, which is traditional for Russian micromorphological studies. Moreover, the definition of “micromorphotypes” was derived from the ideas of diagnostic horizons, which serve as a base for the new Russian soil classification system. Examples of “micromorphotypes” are discussed for a Chernozem and major mineral horizons of loamy soils with textural profile (correlated with Albeluvisols in the WRB system). They illustrate the morphogenetic principles applied, and also bring to light some problems concerning the choice and hierarchy of criteria used for a number of soils.This “micromorphotypes” approach may contribute to the diagnostics of horizons for soil classification, for detection of human impacts, and for the identification of paleosols and their diagenetic changes. To facilitate contacts with nonprofessionals in micromorphology, a simple terminology and a priority of pedogenic principles seem to be preferable.     

Peat soils: Genesis and classification

This paper considers three topical problems—the definition of peat soils as natural-historical formations and the estimation of their profile thickness, the analysis of the genesis of organic soils, and the principles of the classification of peat soils. Based on the experimental data of long-term studies, it was concluded that peat soils may include the whole peat layer and the upper horizons of the surface mineral soil. The organic and mineral parts of the natural structures were found to be a genetically homogeneous soil profile, which has the same history of development. The upper layer of the peat soils should be considered as the horizon reflecting the contemporary stage of the soil formation. A hierarchy of peat soils is analyzed for developing their classification.     

Specific features of the morphology of volcanic soils in the altitudinal zones of Kamchatka

Under conditions of active volcanism, the soils on different geomorphic positions (from high-mountain landscapes to river valleys) are formed under the impact of periodic ashfalls. The exogenous processes affect the redistribution of volcanic ashes by the elements of the relief, so that the soils of different altitudinal zones have their own morphological specificity. It is suggested that two additional types of volcanic soils should be included in the new Russian soil classification: the type of alluvial volcanic soils in the order of volcanic soils and the type of volcanic lithozems in the order of lithozems. These soils can be considered intergrades between volcanic and alluvial soils and between volcanic soils and lithozems, respectively.     

Quantitative approach to classification of gray forest soils in the Volga-Kama forest-steppe region

On the basis of factual data obtained by the Soil Science Department of the Privolzhskii Federal University and available from literary, virtual reference “images” of gray forest soils as distinguished in classification systems of 1977 and 2004 have been obtained with the use of the methods of multivariate statistics for the Volga-Kama forest-steppe region. Discriminant functions and have been obtained, and classification functions have been developed with the help of numerical methods to diagnose new representatives of gray forest soils. The virtual “images” of the soils can be used for the improvement of soil systematization and for solving various applied problems of land use.     

A method of capability evaluation for upland soils

As one of the important capability determinants of upland soils, fertility was taken up as the object of evaluation in this study.

On the basis of correlation analysis, factor analysis (FA) was applied to a set of 12 variates (humus, total nitrogen, available nitrogen, clay. sand, total phosphorus, Bray-P. HC1-P, CEC, percentage base saturation. exchangeable calcium, and pH).

Four mutually independent and clearly definable fertility component factors were consistently extracted from the 12 variates for the entire set of 94 surface soil samples and for different strata of the samples. The fertility status of each sample soil could be objectively designated by the scores of the four factors.

As a means of summarizing the information obtained, taxonomic distances between all pairs of the samples were computed from these 4 factor scores and subjected to numerical taxonomy. Six fertility groups were formulated, each of which was characterized by one or more of the fertility components. This fertility classification based on the present state of soil properties could be of use in pointing to the proper direction of fertility amelioration and improvement for each group of Boils.