Preliminary observations on the tank and pond culture of the glass eels of the Australian shortfin eel, Anguilla australis Richardson

There is expanding interest in the culture of the Australian shortfin eel Anguilla australis Richardson; however, there is a lack of fundamental biology and husbandry information necessary to further develop an industry within Australia. The present study was undertaken to gain a preliminary understanding of basic husbandry requirements for rearing of juvenile A. australis (glass eels and elvers) in tanks and earthen ponds. Newly caught glass eels were successfully acclimated to culture conditions. During tank culture trials, specific growth rates (SGR) and survival rates ranged from ?2.1 to 2.8% day^?1 and 52% to 100% respectively. Glass eels weaned onto a commercial eel diet exhibited a significantly greater SGR and survival rate than those weaned onto a commercial trout diet. Glass eels weaned onto an eel diet over a 15‐day period grew slightly faster than eels weaned over a 5‐day period, but survival rates were not significantly different for each treatment. SGRs (up to 2.8% day^?1) were significantly higher for glass eels fed at 9 and 12% day^?1 than at 6% day^?1. Stocking densities between 2.5 kg m^?3 and 30 kg m^?3 did not influence either SGR or survival rates. SGRs were significantly higher for glass eels cultured at 25 °C than at lower temperatures. During pond culture trials, SGRs and survival rates ranged from 1.36 to 1.65% day^?1 and 39% to 77% respectively. The SGR and survival rates of juvenile eels stocked into ponds receiving supplementary feeding with a commercial eel diet were not significantly different to those of eels stocked into ponds that did not receive supplementary feeding.     

2种体色黄鳝性别、体长及体重之间的关联分析

为了解不同体色黄鳝的性别与体长、体重的差异,2011年5-7月,于洞庭湖地区随机采集灰色及黄色2种体色共208尾野生黄鳝,并对体长、体重及性别进行测量鉴定。样本中,雌性146尾,雄性62尾,雌雄比例为2.35∶1。其中黄色黄鳝83尾,灰色黄鳝125尾。分析结果表明,黄色黄鳝雌雄个体体重及肥满度均高于灰色群体;黄色黄鳝雌性体长大于灰色雌性,雄性小于灰色雄性。雌雄个体体重与体长的相关系数,黄色黄鳝分别为0.914、0.945,灰色黄鳝分别为0.567、0.438。黄色雌鳝比例随着体长的增加逐渐降低,雄性比例随体长的增加逐渐升高,雄鳝在35 cm以上占优势,40 cm之上雄性仅1尾。灰色雌鳝在40 cm以下占优势。2种体色黄鳝雌性比例与体重变化无明显规律。     

Population density, growth and diet of eels, Anguilla anguilla L., in two rivers in eastern England

Abstract. The population density, growth and diets of eels, Anguilla anguilla L., from four sites on two rivers in eastern England were studied over 2 years. Eel population density varied greatly between sites and seasons, few eels being caught during the winter. Mean population densities ranged from 50 to 518 eels/ha and mean biomass from 35 to 210kg/ha. Older eels were more numerous at upstream sites. Growth rates in the two rivers were generally similar, but eels 9–13 years old at upstream sites were significantly larger in terms of length and weight than their downstream counterparts.
Of 868 eels examined, only 425 stomachs contained food, the percentage of empty stomachs being negatively correlated with temperature. Asellus aquaticus was the predominant food item at all sites in all seasons and in the three size classes of eels studied. Megaloptera and Trichoptera were also important. Fish, largely bottom-dwelling species, were found mainly in the largest size-class of eels and in the winter, when few large eels were feeding. Niche breadth expands with increasing size of cel.     

Spatiotemporal variation in the distribution of eel (Anguilla spp.) populations in three New Zealand lowland streams

Abstract – Populations of shortfinned eel ( Anguilla australis ) and longfinned eel ( A. dieffenbachii ) were sampled at randomly chosen sites along the length of three New Zealand streams during summer for three consecutive years to determine their variability in size distribution between streams, reaches (within streams) and years. The longfinned eel was numerically dominant in two of the streams, whereas the shortfinned eel was more abundant in the third stream. For comparisons, the data were stratified into 100-mm size classes for eels ≤600 mm long, whereas eels >600 mm were pooled into a single class. Log-linear analysis indicated that the size distribution of both species differed significantly between streams. Moreover, the size distribution of shortfinned, but not longfinned eels, differed significantly between reaches. Neither species showed significant change in size distribution between years. In contrast to the shortfinned eel, the density of longfinned eel ≤100 mm long was consistently low for all three years, which probably indicates poor recruitment.     

Relationship between growth, food conversion, body size, body composition and temperature in the European eel, Anguilla anguilla L.

Abstract. The influence of temperature on growth of European eels, Anguilla anguilla L., of various body sizes was studied. The mean weight of small eels (SE) (0·6g body weight) maintained at 23°C was significantly lower than that of SE maintained at 25°C or 27°C. No significant differences were found at the end of the experimental period between SE maintained at 25 and 27°C. Similar results were obtained among the moderate-size eels (ME) (l·5gbody weight). However, the average weight increase maintained at 25°C was significantly higher than that of large eels (LE) (3·25g body weight) maintained at 23 or 27°C. It seems that the optimum growth temperature for European eels is different at various stages in their growth and development.     

Effect of insulin in the diet on the growth of European eels (Anguilla anguilla L.)

The effect of oral administration of insulin, in various concentrations, on the growth of European eels (Anguilla anguilla L.) was studied. In order to determine whether the insulin penetrated through the stomach or gills to the blood system, 5 ml insulin, suspended in an 0.6% solution of NaCl, was inserted via the mouth of eels, and the insulin content in the blood measured by radioimmunoassay immediately, and at one and two hours after administration. A control group was given 0.6% NaCl alone. Significantly increased levels of insulin in the blood plasma were found in eels which received high insulin concentrations compared to the control group. Eels administered 20 ppm and 40 ppm insulin in the diet grew significantly faster than a control group fed a diet without insulin, and a group fed 5 ppm insulin.     

The development of stocked eels (Anguilla anguilla) in previously eel‐free Austrian Alpine lakes

Over a period of 34 years (1954–1987), a total of 11.9 million glass eels were stocked all over Austria to improve the yields of commercial fishermen and to make the lakes more attractive for anglers. Nearly half (48%) of the imported glass eels were introduced into natural, previously eel‐free Alpine lakes until stocking ceased in 1988. Twenty‐five years later, their occurrence could be verified in 56% (N = 22) of the Austrian Alpine lakes larger than 50 ha and mean body length had increased to 66 cm. Eels from seven selected Austrian Alpine lakes exhibited a yearly mean increase in length between 0.6 and 1.5 cm, indicating a comparatively poor growth compared with the majority of eel populations from within their natural distribution range. At the same time, high expectations in developing a flourishing eel fishery were not met. In all but one lake, the harvest remained below 3% of the total yearly catch and salmonids remained the dominant target species. During peak harvest in the 1980s, it exceeded 8% in mesotrophic Wallersee (2600 kg). Simulations of stock development indicated that the yield could have been improved, but contrary to earlier expectations eels never became important for local cuisine and catches remained too low for the development of a profitable export business. On the other hand, eels may have contributed to the loss of small‐bodied fish taxa.     

Cortisol and liver metabolism of immature American eels,Anguilla rostrata (LeSueur)

Plasma and liver composition, liver enzyme activities, and metabolite flux in isolated hepatocytes have been studied in immature American eels,Anguilla rostrata, injected daily IP with saline or cortisol (0.35 mg/kg eel). Plasma cortisol values were significantly increased above saline controls in those eels receiving cortisol at 3h and 6h following the final (tenth) injection. On day 6 and 10 of injection plasma cortisol levels were significantly below saline controls 24h following cortisol injection. Plasma glucose values were significantly depressed in the cortisol-injected eels at both 6 and 24h following the final (tenth) injection. At the 24h sampling time, plasma protein had significantly increased, but there was no change in either plasma amino acid or fatty acid levels. An increased hepatosomatic index was attributed to a major increase in total lipids, as both protein and glycogen contents were decreased. Of the liver enzymes assayed, significant activity changes occurred only for lactate dehydrogenase (decreased), mitochondrial citrate synthase (increased) and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (increased) 24h following the final (tenth) cortisol injection. Although enzyme activity changes implied increased liver gluconeogenesis, the absolute rate of lactate, alanine, and aspartate incorporation into glucose declined in viable hepatocytes isolated from cortisol-injected eels compared to the saline controls. Relative changes in metabolite flux did support a preferential increase in gluconeogenesis from amino acids. These results are consistent with the increase in amino acid gluconeogenesis as a result of cortisol administration implied in previous studies, but failed to show a definitive cortisol effect on this pathway in the eel liver. It is suggested that other hormones (e.g. thyroxine, catecholamines, glucagon) may interact in a complex way with cortisolin vivo to bring about the biochemical changes observed in this study. The rapid clearance of exogenously injected cortisol noted in this study makes causal relationships between the injected hormone and any observed metabolic effect in the intact animal difficult.     

Movements of the European eel (Anguilla anguilla) in a chalk stream

Abstract – The movements of wild European eels (Anguilla anguilla L.) were monitored continuously over a 2‐year period in a tributary of the River Itchen, Hampshire, UK, using a passive integrated transponder (PIT) antenna system. The time of these movements was then related to a number of monitored and calculated environmental parameters. No eel movements were recorded in the winter months when mean stream temperature was below 10 °C. The numbers of movements peaked in May, when mean water temperatures and day length were increasing. The movement of eels was significantly (P < 0.001, R² = 0.45, N = 72) correlated with the time of sunset, with the majority (72%) recorded during the hours of darkness. The results of this investigation have implications for the design/timing of surveys of yellow eel populations and their habitat associations and suggest that successfully determining the microhabitat preferences of active resident eels will require remote monitoring throughout the 24‐h period.     

Size-related differences in diel activity of two species of juvenile eel (Anguilla) in a laboratory stream

Abstract – The diel activity of three size groups (small=<100 mm; medium=100–199 mm; large=200–299 mm total length) of juvenile shortfinned ("shortfin") eels ( Anguilla australis ) and longfinned ("longfin") eels ( A. dieffenbachii ) was tested in a laboratory flow tank over a 48-h period during summer. All size groups of both species were nocturnally active, with the eels hiding in the substratum during the day and coming out on top of the cobbles from dusk to dawn, to feed. During the foraging period, the numbers and activity of all sizes of longfins visible were greater than those seen of shortfins, with the differences being more pronounced for small and medium eels. The activity of all eels consisted mostly of foraging by crawling, searching and probing for prey among the cobbles. Rate of activity increased with size of eel for both species. Small eels of either species did more swimming than eels of the larger sizes, whereas large eels were observed more frequently with only their head out of the substrate than were the smaller individuals. Feeding of small eels within the interstitial spaces of the streambed may explain their significantly lower activity on top of the substrate at night. The significantly lower rate of activity recorded for shortfins than longfins of all sizes may be due partly to their ability to feed within the interstices of the stream bed, and (or) longer time to recover from handling and habituate to the test environment. ^Note     

Identification and management of ocular lipid deposition in association with hyperlipidaemia in captive moray eels , Gymnothorax funebris Ranzani, Gymnothorax moringa (Cuvier) and Muraena retifera Goode and Bean

Ocular lipid deposition and its surgical management and possible association with systemic hyperlipidaemia in captive moray eels are described. Ophthalmologic examinations, haematology and plasma biochemistry analyses were performed on an initial population of captive moray eels (n = 10): green moray, Gymnothorax funebris Ranzani; spotted moray, Gymnothorax morninga (Cuvier) and reticulated moray, Muraena retifera Goode and Bean. Recently captured green moray eels comprised the control group (n = 9). Clinical signs compatible with ocular lipid deposition were identified in six of ten captive eels (60%) vs. none of the controls. Green moray eels in the initial captive population (n = 5) had significantly higher total protein, triglyceride, cholesterol and aspartate amino transferase values than the control eels. Dietary management was attempted in all captive eels, and surgical intervention was performed in three eels, including two from a separate population, with improved ocular clarity within 1 month post‐operatively. Histopathological evaluation of surgical specimens and two eyes from an additional affected eel that died suggested ocular lipid deposition. Eels in captivity have an apparent predisposition for hyperlipidaemia and ocular lipid deposition. Although limited in this study and complicated by exhibit restraints, dietary management was minimally effective, while surgery improved ocular clarity.     

The influence of phytoestrogens and oestradiol-17β on growth and sex determination in the European eel (Anguilla anguilla)

Under aquaculture conditions, European eels (Anguilla anguilla) produce a high percentage of males (80–95%) that normally stop growing at 100–200 g. Females continue to grow to 500–750 g and obtain higher market value. Therefore, increasing the percentage of females in a population would be beneficial to the culture of eels. The present study was carried out in order to examine the effect of oestradiol and phytooestrogens on sex differentiation and growth rate of eels. Juvenile European eels with undifferentiated gonads were fed pellets containing oestradiol‐17β (E2) or phytooestrogens for 100–150 days. Feeding E2 resulted in 50–61% increase in body weight compared with the control. Oestradiol‐17β and phytooestrogens both elevated significantly the percentage of females in the population. Feeding E2 at 20 mg kg^?1 feed resulted in 70% females, while lower concentration of E2 (2 mg kg^?1) resulted in only 30% after 100 days (Experiment 1). The same dose given for 150 days (Experiment 2) resulted in 88% females, indicating that both, the concentration and duration of E2 treatments had a significant effect on sex differentiation. Fish fed genistein at 2 mg kg^?1 for 100 days, resulted in 55% of females, but at a higher dose of 20 mg kg^?1 there were only 15% females. These results demonstrate that phytooestrogens can be used as alternatives to gonadal steroids for sex manipulation in eels, but the optimal concentrations and duration are still to be determined.     

Controlled reproduction in Anguilla anguilla (L.): comparison between spontaneous spawning and stripping‐insemination approaches

This study aimed to compare the fertility of eggs between artificially matured female silver eels that spawned spontaneously and those that were spawned by manual stripping. The effects of the two methods of spawning on ovulation and fertilization rate were also investigated. For this purpose, 18 wild female European eels captured in Bonello lagoon (North Adriatic Sea) were carp pituitary extract‐injected to undergo sexual maturation and ovulation; a final injection of 17,20β‐dihydroxy‐4‐pregnen‐3‐one (DHP) was administered when at least 30% of the oocytes were fully transparent. After the DHP‐injection, nine eels were transferred to a new closed recirculating aquaculture system, where they were housed with spermiating males (sex ratio 4/1) to allow spontaneous spawning (SPT‐group); the remaining nine eels were transferred to a 250 L tank and ovulation was checked at four‐hourly intervals by manual stripping (STR‐group). The number of eggs per female in the SPT‐group was significantly greater than that in the STR‐group. Furthermore, fertilization rates in the SPT‐group were notably higher than those observed in the STR‐group. Significantly, the best performances were obtained among eels in which at least 50% of oocytes were fully transparent at the time DHP was administered. We conclude that the fertility of eggs from spontaneously spawning eels is superior to that of eggs acquired by strip‐spawning and artificial fertilization.     

Effects of silvering state on induced maturation and spawning in wild female Japanese eel <Emphasis Type="Italic">Anguilla japonica</Emphasis>

ABSTRACT:   The effects of silvering state of wild female Japanese eels Anguilla japonica on the success of induced maturation and the following spawning were examined. Thirty-eight females, collected in Mikawa Bay, were divided into four stages based on their silvering state: yellow (Y1), late-yellow (Y2), silver (S1) and late silver eels (S2). Despite injections of salmon pituitary extract (SPE) through the standard technique, Y1 and Y2 eels did not respond to the treatment with undeveloped gonad (gonad-somatic index [GSI]: 0.3–0.9), and all these females died by 5 weeks, probably due to an abnormal physiological condition. Most S1 (81%) and S2 eels (100%) matured completely (GSI: 17.8–51.4), and finally spawned successfully (69% for S1, 89% for S2). S2 eels fully matured with oocytes of over 750 μm in diameter by significantly smaller number of injections of SPE (5–6 times) than the case of S1 eels (6–8 times). The amount of eggs released by S2 eels (0.65 ± 0.11 g/fish per body weight [BW]) was significantly larger than those by S1 eels (0.54 ± 0.09 g/fish per BW). There was no difference in fertilization and hatching rates between eggs released by S1 eels and those of S2 eels. These results indicate that the success of induced maturation and spawning in wild female Japanese eels depends on their silvering state, and matured eggs can be obtained efficiently through the use of S2 eels rather than other stages.     

Differences in head shape of the European eel, Anguilla anguilla (L.)

Differences in eel, Anguilla anguilla (L.), head shape were the result of greater increases in head width, rather than changes in head length. The ratio of head width:total length (HW:TL) increased significantly ( t -test, P < 0.05) from the glass-yellow eel stage. Cultured yellow eels were exclusively narrow headed (mean HW:TL = 0.027, range = 0.023–0.032), while wild yellow eels displayed an array of head shapes (mean HW:TL = 0.033, range = 0.023–0.046). Therefore, broad heads (HW:TL 0.033) occurred only among wild yellow eels sampled and may have resulted from diet. Cultured yellow eels consumed only small pellet material. Of wild yellow eels stomachs containing food, 78% of broad-headed eels consumed large and/or hard-bodied organisms (e.g. beetles, fish, molluscs and Notonecta sp.), while 83% of narrow-headed eels consumed exclusively small/soft-bodied prey (e.g. amphipods and chironomids).     

Use of intensive rearing systems as back-up for coastal lagoon aquaculture: an experience with eels, Anguilla anguilla L., in the Comacchio lagoons

Abstract. The possibility of using eels from intensive rearing ponds to restock natural basins has been investigated by comparing growth, survival and rate of yellow-to-silver metamorphosis of 'wild type' eels and of eels from an intensive rearing pond. A total of 2243 marked eels were released into a closed natural environment of 22ha; 1254 were wild type (average length 45·6 ± 9·0cm), and 989 from an intensive rearing pond, split by a mechanical grader in two groups. The first group was made of 617 well-growing eels (44·9 ± 3·0cm), the second one of 372 smaller eels (36·9 ± 4·3cm) which had not adapted to the artificial conditions.
The starting size being equal the animals grew to the same extent; in some cases the animals previously adapted to the artificial pond grew better than the wild type. The rate of metamorphosis from yellow to silver eel was 28·4% for the wild type eels and 22% for the others, although the latter became mostly silver males. Survival of the wild type eels (starting with the 35-cm size class and covering the period from April to December) was calculated by mark-recapture at approximately 98·6%. For the eels previously well adapted to the intensive rearing pond it was only 85%, indicating some difficulty in competing in the natural environment. The good growth shown by the smaller eels, with a survival of about 90%, would seem to indicate that these animals might be effectively used for restocking purposes, thus favouring an integration between the intensive ponds and the extensive environments.     

Controlled reproduction in the wild European eel (Anguilla anguilla): two populations compared

This study aimed to describe the response variability of female silver eels in terms of gonad development and eggs production to a standardized gonadotropic treatment (Carp pituitary extracts—CPE), and to relate this variability to population characteristics. For this purpose, sexual maturation, ovulation, and fertilization were induced in two eel populations coming from different locations in Adriatic Sea (Comacchio—CM and Marano-Grado—MG lagoons), and after that, their reproductive capacity was valuated. External (Silver index—SI, Eye index—EI, Pectoral fin length index—PFLI, Condition factor—K) and hormonal (17β-estradiol—E2, testosterone—T) parameters were measured, and some subject/group were killed for histological and lipid analysis and age determination. Morphometric parameters showed the CM-Group to have highest values of Body weight (BW), Body length (BL), and K, while MG-Group presented highest PFLI and Gonadosomatic index (GSI) values. Regarding hormonal analysis, the CM-Group showed significantly higher T and E2 levels than the MG-Group, both groups showed considerably rapid increase at T5 (5th injection). A positive trend in gonadal development was found through histological evaluation; a more regular maturation was observed in the MG-Group, whereas the CM-Group presented an exponential oocytes development starting from T10 (10th week), which led to an anticipated spawning. Lipid content showed significant differences in T0 (start study), post-ovulation, and Control (30th week) between CM and MG eels. As to zootechnical performances, while MG eels released spontaneously into the water, the CMs were stripped in order to check ovulation. The MG eels were statistically the most productive with 40.1 ± 6.33 % BW of eggs released. Furthermore, CM females ovulated mainly between the 19th and 22nd week (77.8 % spawned eels) instead in the MG’s ovulation goes from the 24th to the 28th week (100 % spawned eels). As fertilization is of concern, in both groups fertilized eggs were obtained with no difference in larvae production. These results seem to indicate that bigger dimensions, higher K, and larger lipid content (Comacchio eels) could fasten gonadic maturation without positively influencing reproductive performance of animals, both in term of quantity and quality of produced eggs. Smaller females with a highest SI (Marano-Grado eels) presented a more regular gonadic development, leading the animals to spontaneous spawning.     

Large‐scale,seasonal habitat use and movements of yellow American eels in the St. Lawrence River revealed by acoustic telemetry

Large‐scale habitat use and movements of yellow American eels (Anguilla rostrata) from the St. Lawrence River were examined using acoustic telemetry from early summer to late fall in 2010 and 2011. Sixty‐seven eels were tagged, and their passage or presence was recorded using fixed acoustic arrays covering a 400 km distance along the St. Lawrence River and Estuary. Sixty‐four per cent of the 67 tagged eels were detected. Most eels were detected at only one array; the closest to their release location and at several occasions during the tracking period, suggesting a high proportion of freshwater residency in the upstream part of the St. Lawrence River. Downstream movements towards the brackish estuary (63–418 km distance) were demonstrated for 16.4% of the eels, particularly for those caught at the most downstream site that is close to the brackish estuary. Our results strongly suggest a lower activity of freshwater resident yellow eels during summer, a behaviour that may be related to day length, which defines time available for their nocturnal foraging. Indeed, yellow eels were detected primarily at night; no effect of moon phase was revealed. Movements in the vicinity of arrays (up to 116 km in the fluvial estuary) were suggested and smaller‐scale movements within Lac St. Louis were demonstrated, highlighting a yellow‐eel home range far more extensive than previously reported in smaller systems. Evidence for within‐season homing and site fidelity is also reported.     

Longevity of longfinned eels Anguilla dieffenbachii in a New Zealand high country lake

A sample of 146 longfinned eels (Anguilla dieffenbachii), ranging in length from 231–1203 mm, was collected from Lake Rotoiti, Nelson Lakes National Park, New Zealand. Otoliths (n= 114) of eels were difficult to read, mainly due to the considerable age (maximum age 106 years). Growth rate was slow and linear, averaging 9 mm. year^?1. These are the slowest growth rate and maximum age from any study of Anguilla spp. to date. Lakes within National Parks provide the largest commercially unfished waters within New Zealand and hence provide reserve breeding stocks of longfinned eels; however, the average generation time of 93 years for female eels from Lake Rotoiti implies that stock management should be conservative.