Forest Accountancy Data Networks as a Means for Investigating Small-Scale Forestry: A European Perspective

Investigating the socio-economics of small-scale forestry is an important issue, small forest holdings making up a considerable share of Europe’s forest sector. Private forest enterprises with less than 200 ha represent 34.6% of the forest area in Germany and 50.4% in Austria. The large number of small units triggers specific challenges for empirical research. This paper identifies associated problems and highlights the potential as well as the current limitations of accountancy data networks in monitoring the profitability of farm forestry in Germany and Austria. Although there is little hope for establishing an internationally harmonized monitoring scheme or even a European-wide scheme, there is potential for improving the international comparability of existing recording systems and data analysis. National or sub-national initiatives should be designed in such a way that compatibility with other networking activities enhances the potential for analysis. Some of the most urgent research questions in regard to small-scale forestry are equally significant at the international level and clearly call for coordination. Established forest accountancy data networks should be considered one kind of research infrastructure to be utilized for harmonizing investigations.     

Research on planting stock and forest regeneration in South Africa

Unlike countries with substantial forest resources, South Africa has a limited area available for forestry development and timber production. This is mainly because of insufficient rainfall for a viable timber production in most of the country, and the priority to utilize land for other purposes such as food production, fundamental community needs and water harvesting. The timber production has steadily increased over the last years, mainly due to breeding strategies and intensive silviculture. The variety of sites and products, as well as the need for improved and product-specific timber properties, force the grower to utilize a multitude of species, hybrids and clones in a fairly uniform operational system. Research-derived plantation forestry in South Africa provides examples of successful biological technology, yet its optimization needs attention. A better integration of components in the `harvesting/processing-nursery-regeneration-tending-harvesting/processing' cycle offers a tremendous challenge for future research.     

Farm and Village Forest Use Practice in Ekiti State: Analysis of Government Policy and Tenure Issues

This study analyzed the influence of government policy and tenure issues on farm and village forest use practices in Ekiti State, Nigeria. Three rural communities that were still far from urban influence were selected from each of the 16 local government areas of the state. In each community, 20 household heads were selected and interviewed with the aid of a semi-structured matrix. The interviews aimed at the determination of respondents' socioeconomic status, awareness and belief in the effectiveness or otherwise of the forest laws and regulations, land use, tenure and property rights. Results obtained revealed that the awareness of forest laws and regulations cut across the socio-economic categories. Most of these laws and regulations that were considered to be necessary could also constitute disincentives to sustainable forest development. Three types of land tenure niches—private holdings, commons, and government reserves—exist in the state. These led to land fragmentations in which individuals are now left with small holdings. Individuals with small and medium landholdings found it difficult to invest in tree planting; hence, they meet their subsistence use of wood and non-wood forest products from diverse sources. Individuals with large landholdings were found cultivating cash tree crops; timber species were not cultivated though their wildlings were preserved. Also, when land is let or leased out, tenants were not allowed to invest in tree planting on such land.     

Expansion of Eucalypt Farm Forestry and Its Determinants in Arsi Negelle District, South Central Ethiopia

Declining natural forests and growing demands for wood products are encouraging the rapid expansion of eucalypt farm forestry in Ethiopia, and Arsi Negelle district represents areas with recent plantation expansion in the Rift Valley area of Ethiopia. This study assessed trends in eucalypt planting over the last five decades, identified the determinants, and examined perceptions of local stakeholders towards this expansion in the district. Quantitative data were gathered through a household survey and farm level inventory. About 90% of the respondents had planted eucalypts, and 52% of them were engaged in planting since the late 1990s. About 11% converted cropland to eucalypt woodlots, which is also a growing trend in the area. Proximity to Arsi-Forest Enterprise (P?<?0.01) and area of land holding (P?<?0.01) positively and significantly affected both decision to plant and land area allocated to eucalypts plantings. Active labour in the family negatively and significantly (P?<?0.05) affected planting decisions, while education level of the household head positively and significantly (P?<?0.05) affected land area allocated to eucalypts plantings. Despite strong policy discouragement and perceived adverse ecological effects by the farmers themselves, 96% of them and 90% of the district experts support the expansion. Eucalyptus has become the most desired and planted tree genus, and economics not ecology appears to drive its expansion. Unless better alternative sources of cash income and substitutes for energy and construction materials are found, its expansion is likely to continue even at the expense of cropland. It is concluded that research is needed to fine-tune current eucalypt farm forestry practices to reduce the associated ecological externalities, rather than grossly banning eucalypt planting by smallholders.     

Farm Forestry Prospects Among Some Local Communities in Rachuonyo District,Kenya

Deforestation and degradation of productive lands are serious threats to the sustainability of forestry/agricultural practices in Kenya. In the last two decades farm forestry (FF) has been promoted through pilot projects among local communities as an example of sustainable land use. However adoption of FF is limited outside the project locations because FF improvement measures focused mainly on biological (e.g. succession, biodiversity and traditional industrial timber production) and technical concerns (e.g. material input delivery such as providing free tree seedlings for field planting) rather than local values, and interests and the constraints facing farmers. This study examined the local farm priorities and constraints and the prospects for the wider implementation of farm-level tree planting in four communities in Rachuonyo District. Using interviews with 597 randomly selected household heads, the study assessed farmer’s production assets and activities, land tenure, priority tree species and the constraints to growing trees on farms. Results show that farm labour is represented by a young population, 56.3% under the age of forty. They are mainly engaged in small-scale mixed cropping integrated with multipurpose trees and some livestock. Tree products contribute about 32% to household cash income, more than any other source (agricultural products, labour sales, etc). Females were more often household heads and had considerable influence over productive activities, making them an important target group in FF development. Farmers preferred exotic tree species due to their ability to provide short-term cash income, fuel and shade. Farmers’ concerns included population pressure on limited farmlands and the problem of credit for agricultural inputs. Given the feeling of secured tenure arrangement and influence of tree products on the household economy, farmers are likely to invest more in efficient land uses such as FF if consideration is given to local priorities.     

Farm forestry in Australia: review of a national program

Australia, like many other countries, is increasingly turning to farm forestry for its potential to address important economic, environmental and social issues at both the regional and national levels. However, despite its apparent multiple benefits, farm forestry adoption remains low, with less than 3% of all trees planted by farmers during recent years being for commercial timber production. The authors have recently completed an evaluation of the Australian government's Farm Forestry Program (FFP). That evaluation and a review of current literature are used to provide an assessment of the FFP. While the logic underpinning the program is sound, the authors identified a number of key findings from the evaluation and recommended areas for improvement. The FFP combined 26 projects to form an appropriate mix of community development and research activities and has made an important contribution to regional farm forestry. Despite important gains made by the FFP, viable regional farm forestry industries have not emerged. Whilst projects made a strong contribution to raising awareness of farm forestry, projects lacked a systematic approach to developing landholder knowledge and skills. Large numbers of demonstration sites were established with inadequate consideration given to monitoring, evaluation and dissemination of findings.     

Forest resources and timber production of Ghana: Current instruments for sustainable development

The decline of the natural tropical high forest has reached a critical stage in Ghana’s forestry history. Timber resources are over-exploited, degraded and further production prospects are questionable and of concern to forest management. The objective of this paper is to discuss some of the institutional measures and development instruments being taken in Ghana towards the feasibility of achieving sustainable management of the high forest for timber and other commodity products, as well as conserving other forest resources. This paper, therefore, provides institutional measures and structures, regulatory and economic instruments, currently being taken to ensure effective forest management and increase the productivity of the land and logging. The role of collaborative management approach of both natural reserved and unreserved high forests and to promote integrated farm forestry is explained. Effective management of the high forest resource demands close harmonizing of instruments and mechanisms, both internal and external to forestry, and which encourage stakeholders to participate actively in decision making that affects the resource quality and its production status. Currently, different instruments including regulatory, property rights, motivational, hypothecation, information supply and economic are being applied in Ghana to achieve sustainable forest resource management and timber production. These instruments are not mutually exclusive in their current application, but rather complementary. Thus, an effective mix of instruments is necessary to promote and make feasible, sustainable forestry in Ghana’s socioeconomic development objectives.     

Adoption potential of fruit-tree-based agroforestry on small farms in the subtropical highlands

Worldwide, fruit-tree-based agroforestry systems have been only modestly studied, although they are common on smallholder farms. Such systems based on apple (Malus spp.), peach (Prunus spp.), and pear (Pyrus spp.) are common in northwest Guatemala as low intensity homegardens and are known to increase total farm productivity in communities where farm size is a limiting factor. This study investigated the potential for adoption of fruit-tree-based agroforestry by resource-limited farmers using ethnographic investigation and linear programming simulations of farm activities at the household level. Two communities with differing demographics, infrastructure, and access to regional markets were selected based on the presence of extensive fruit-tree-based agroforestry. The influences of family size, land holdings, and tree and crop yields on the optimal adoption levels of fruit trees were evaluated through a comparative study of the varying social and physical infrastructure present in the two communities. Fruit-tree-based agroforestry was potentially more attractive to relatively prosperous families or those with larger land holdings. Improvements in fruit-tree productivity and interspecies competition were of greater importance where family land holdings were smaller. The inability of families to produce sufficient food to meet annual needs, poor fruit quality, and lack of market infrastructure were identified as constraints that limit adoption. The complementarity of production with the dominant maize (Zea mays) crop, home consumption of fruit, and the potential to generate additional cash on limited land holdings were identified as factors promoting adoption of fruit-tree-based agroforestry.     

Effect of land prices,transportation costs,and site productivity on timber investment returns for pine plantations in Colombia

The relative importance of land costs, site quality, and forest location are major concerns in forestry investments, but little research has been done to assess the impacts of these or other factors on financial returns. In response to this issue, the effects of land prices, wood transportation costs, site productivity, and discount rates on timber investment returns for pine plantations in the Andean Region in Colombia were estimated. For all the scenarios analyzed, the internal rate of return varied between 6.4 and 15.6%. High site quality with high growth rates were profitable in all scenarios at real discount rates ranging from 8 to 12%, but low site qualities seldom had positive net present values. Less expensive land and locations close to mills had better rates of return. More distant locations, poor quality sites, or areas with high land costs generally did not meet the discount hurdle rates. Site quality, which is the factor most easily manipulated by intensive forest management and improved technology, was substantially more important than land prices and transportation differences in determining timber investment returns.     

Simulating logging scenarios in secondary forest embedded in a fragmented neotropical landscape

In publications on tropical forest fragmentation, regrowing secondary forests (SF) on abandoned agricultural land are often overlooked. These forests represent highly fragmented components in the landscape matrix which are generally less than 100 ha in size. SF are found on privately owned land where they are contributing to on-farm income through logging and/or use of non-timber products. Hence, defining pure conservation goals for this forest type seems to be unrealistic. In this paper, we used the process-based model F 3-Q to simulate successional processes and logging scenarios in SF exposed to different degrees of fragmentation (either facing non-forest land on only one side or totally surrounded by agricultural land) in the subtropical eastern part of Paraguay. We compared results with primary forest embedded in a similar matrix. Under light fragmentation, bole volume of SF approached primary forest values after about 50 years of succession. Species composition, however, was clearly distinct from primary forest over the first 200 years of succession. The development of bole volume and species composition in severely fragmented SF was similar to the less fragmented SF over the initial 50 years. However, limited seed input, largely confined to on-site seed sources in the severely fragmented SF, led to a decline in bole volume by about one-third compared to the reference value over the simulation period of 400 years. By applying a minimum felling diameter (MFD) of 35 cm in the lightly fragmented SF, first logging was only possible after 30 years, resulting in a mere 3.7 m³ ha⁻¹ harvest. Highest timber yields were obtained with 10 yr cutting cycles and a maximum removal of 20 stems ha⁻¹, though sustainable yields only resulted from lowering the MFD to 30 cm. Logging in severely fragmented SF accelerated the decline of bole volume. Overall, results suggest that timber production in SF without silvicultural treatments is low and hence does not constitute a viable option to diversify farm income. Only managed SF may serve this function. Research focusing on the elaboration of management options for SF, integrating as much as possible of the original vegetation, is needed.     

人工林香叶树木材物理性质的研究

研究了福建省三明莘口教学林场香叶树人工林的木材物理性质。结果表明：香叶树人工林木材生材密度0.826 g/cm3,基本密度为0.529 g/cm3;木材径向、弦向和体积干缩系数分别为0.235%,0.337%,0.603%,收缩大,木材不易开裂和变形,是良好的家具及室内装饰用材。     

Protected area co-management and land use conflicts adjacent to Phu Kao – Phu Phan Kham National Park,Thailand

This study examined land use conflicts between three villages and Phu Kao – Phu Phan Kham National Park in northeast Thailand that resulted from its access and utilization during 2013–2015. The source of conflict is usufruct rights, a government entitlement program designed to honor villagers who lived on the land before it was established as a national park or forest reserve. Ironically, designation of protected areas is not a safeguard for biodiversity. A complex set of rules and regulations control access to resources, but compliance is subject to government oversight and economic pressure to improve quality of life. Granting usufruct rights may reduce certain land use conflicts, but they fail to address agricultural expansion inside park and forest boundaries. For example, agricultural encroachment in this protected area increased by 13.1% during the study period, mainly through cassava plantings. Cassava requires a small amount of maintenance and has a high market value since it is being promoted as an energy crop by the Thai government. A variety of management strategies are needed for sustainable forestry, such as regular forest patrols, reduction of agricultural-based income, and community-based initiatives.     

Optimal harvesting time in single‐ and multiple‐purpose forest management

In single‐purpose timber producing forestry, the optimal harvesting time occurs when the net revenue on the stumpage value equals the cost of renting the land (the land‐use cost) minus the change in land value.

In multiple‐purpose forestry, the optimal time for harvesting occurs when the sum of the net revenues of the stumpage value and the amenity value is equal to the cost of renting the land minus the change in the land value. This land value is the sum of the land value for timber production and the land value for amenity services in the case of combined management of timber and amenity‐resources.     

Enhancing the value of multiple use plantations: a case study from southeast Queensland, Australia

In the 1990s, an expansion of small-scale (farm) forestry in medium to low rainfall areas was considered to be an important part of increasing the national forest estate but it remains a very minor source of timber, largely confined to the higher rainfall areas. In most areas, returns from timber are much less than for alternative land uses, even with low discount rates. If however, there are additional returns from plantation grazing and carbon sequestration and there are other potential management gains, multiple use plantations may be more attractive. The goal of this study is to estimate the net present values of multiple use spotted gum plantations in a medium rainfall area of southeast Queensland. For the case study, production, carbon sequestration and emissions data were supplemented by formal and informal interviews with landholders, sawmill staff and government extension personnel. Forest inventory, biomass and soil sampling, and stakeholder interviews were used as sources of primary data. The costs and benefits data were converted into monetary terms and discounted to produce net present values. Evaluations in this study identify the optimal rotation age of plantations to be 33–34?years. This is the case if including carbon and stock values, and using either farm- or factory-gate timber prices. The net present value increases significantly however if farmers harvest the trees themselves. In addition, at harvesting age, it was found that carbon and stock had the potential to account for 19.2 and 11.4?% respectively of the total returns from spotted gum plantations. Policy initiatives to support the farm forestry sub-sector should include pricing greenhouse gas emissions and developing and strengthening farmers co-operatives and marketing institutions to enhance farmers’ bargaining power.     

The changing administration and role of forestry in the economy of Vietnam

This paper reviews the changing forestry policies in Vietnam from the 1980s to the present. The role of forestry in the economy, developments in forest industries, government programs to encourage plantation establishment, and trade progress are examined. It is concluded that while there is a shortage of timber, log prices to growers are low due to high markups along the supply chain. Government programs such as the Five Million Hectares forestry program will lead to major supply increases in the future, but improvements in timber marketing will remain critical. While forestry exports from Vietnam have increased in the last decade, this has been based mainly on traditional handicrafts. Small enterprise size and lack of advanced technology limit export competitiveness.     

Visions and realities for a Wik Forestry Industry on Cape York Peninsula,Australia

The large and unutilised native forest timber resource on traditional Wik land on Cape York Peninsula, Australia, could be managed for timber production to contribute to Wik socio-economic objectives. Wik elders have a set of forestry objectives and envisage that these will be best achieved by a timber industry selling unprocessed logs and woodchips. On the other hand, Balkanu Cape York Development Corporation, a government-funded indigenous community development organisation, anticipate that an industry utilising high-technology equipment and producing dried and dressed finished products including strip-flooring will best satisfy Wik forestry objectives. The Wilderness Society envisages small-scale ‘community development’ activities such as protable sawmilling and niche market furniture manufacture as being appropriate types of forestry activities on Wik land. Goal programming analysis of forest use opportunities indicates that Wik forestry objectives are unlikely to be best satisfied by adopting the timber utilisation options espoused by any one of the stakeholder groups.     

Increasing rotation periods during a time of decreasing profitability of forestry — a paradox?

The profitability of forestry in Germany decreased during recent decades because of more or less constant prices for forest products, increasing input prices and limited success in rationalisation. However, the volume of growing stock increased significantly during this period since forest enterprises have chosen longer rotation periods. This is especially true for state owned and community owned forests but also at least partly for private forests. It is normally not an alternative for the owners of forest enterprises in Germany to sell the forests completely, but on a first glance increasing investments in standing timber during a time of decreasing profitability of forestry seems to be inconsistent with economic theory. On the one hand this observation could be explained as the result of non-timber values. However, this paper is focused on another approach, which is an expanded Faustmann model in line with soil rent theory and focused on timber production. Profitable rotations in the future have the effect of shortening the optimal rotation period because an investment in standing timber causes opportunity costs by delaying the establishment of the next generation of the forest. Unprofitable future rotations have the opposite effect, if the landowner is forced to reforest. In case investments in reforestations are not profitable decision-makers have good reasons not to cut the mature stands, in spite of the fact that the internal rates of return of investments in standing timber are low in comparison with investments on the financial market. Empirical data for the period 1954–1998 mostly from guidelines for forest valuation are used together with inflation corrected interest rates to show that optimal rotation length increased over time. Nevertheless we have to recognise that the observed rotation periods are distinctly longer than the calculated optimal rotation lengths. Other factors which may also explain the investments in forestry are discussed later.     

不同类型造林地造林效果调查

不同地类造林地造林效果的差异较大。特别是停耕地与采伐迹地和灌丛地选林相比，其比活率低，幼树长势明显缓慢，且色暗黄，多分杈，应采取措施以提高退耕还林和参后还林的造林质量。     

Inventory Procedures for Smallholder and Community Woodlots in the Philippines: Methods,Initial Findings and Insights

This paper details the processes and challenges involved in collecting inventory data from smallholder and community woodlots on Leyte Island, Philippines. Over the period from 2005 through to 2012, 253 woodlots at 170 sites were sampled as part of a large multidisciplinary project, resulting in a substantial timber inventory database. The inventory was undertaken to provide information for three separate but interrelated studies, namely (1) tree growth, performance and timber availability from private smallholder woodlots on Leyte Island; (2) tree growth and performance of mixed-species plantings of native species; and (3) the assessment of reforestation outcomes from various forms of reforestation. A common procedure for establishing plots within each site was developed and applied in each study, although the basis of site selection varied. A two-stage probability proportion to size sampling framework was developed to select smallholder woodlots for inclusion in the inventory. In contrast, community-based forestry woodlots were selected using stratified random sampling. Challenges encountered in undertaking the inventory were mostly associated with the need to consult widely before the commencement of the inventory and problems in identifying woodlots for inclusion. Most smallholder woodlots were only capable of producing merchantable volumes of less than 44 % of the site potential due to a lack of appropriate silviculture. There was a clear bimodal distribution of proportion that the woodlots comprised of the total smallholding area. This bimodality reflects two major motivations for smallholders to establish woodlots, namely timber production and to secure land tenure.