瑞典北部地区林地使用权属冲突解决的磋商程序分析

瑞典北部林地为营林业和驯鹿业复合使用,2个行业的发展对对方都构成不利影响。文中描述了营林业和驯鹿业共同使用林地的情况以及存在的权属冲突表现形式与成因,分析了瑞典《森林法》规定的磋商程序及其操作与实施、双方对磋商程序的评价和磋商程序的改进方向,讨论了磋商程序在营林业和驯鹿业冲突缓解中的作用以及制度存在的失灵现象,并提出应进一步推动制度创新。     

A century of logging and forestry in a reindeer herding area in northern Sweden

Boreal forest ecosystems are generally highly sensitive to logging and other forestry activities. Thus, commercial forestry has had major effects on the forests and landscape structure in northern Sweden since the middle of the 19th Century, when it rapidly extended across the region. Lichens (which constitute up to 80% of reindeer forage in winter and early spring) have often been amongst the most severely affected ecosystem components. The overall aim of the present study was to analyze how forestry has influenced the potential supply of ground-growing lichens as winter forage for the reindeer in this region over the past ca. 100 years. For this purpose, we analysed changes in forest and stand structure in Scots pine-dominated (Pinus sylvestris L.) reindeer wintering areas in the southern part of the county Norrbotten (covering ca. 58,000 ha) using detailed historical forest inventories and management plans. We found that the amount of the forest types considered potentially good pasture (mainly middle-aged and old pine forests) decreased during the first part of the 20th Century. However, the quality of grazing grounds was improved by forestry during this time mainly because selective logging made the forests more open which benefits lichen growth. During the last part of the 20th century forestry impaired the quality of grazing grounds in several ways, e.g. by clear-cutting and intensified use of various silvicultural measures. We conclude that ca. 30–50% of the winter grazing grounds have been lost in the study area because of intensive forest management during the last century. The spatially precise historical information about the affects of forestry on lichen pasture provided in this study can be used to direct forest management which will facilitate and promote reindeer herding in the future.     

Stakeholder perceptions,management and impacts of forestry conflicts in southern Sweden

ABSTRACT

Forests are under increasing pressure with increasing risk of conflicts between stakeholder groups with different interests in sustainable forest management (SFM). This study investigated the different dimensions of conflict as perceived by private forest owners and other stakeholders, and the likely impact of these pressures on SFM in a southern Swedish context. Data were collected through a mixed methods approach using qualitative in-depth individual semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and a quantitative survey (n?=?6–161), with questions on present and past conflicts, actors, drivers, acting, management and solutions. Stakeholders felt that in the past the conflicts were more about technical dimensions of forestry practice, and today more about the political and cultural dimensions of forestry issues. The most frequently mentioned reason for forest conflict was forest protection, especially woodland key habitats. In all conflicts, forest owners emphasised the importance of knowledge, responsibility and emotions. Other stakeholders did too, but with emotions less emphasised. In managing conflict, meetings, adaptation and education were stressed by stakeholders. Dialogue arenas on different levels are needed for all stakeholders. Governing bodies also need to realise the implication different approaches and strategies have on forest owners management.     

Impacts of different forest management scenarios on forestry and reindeer husbandry

In northern Sweden, the forests are used simultaneously for both timber production and reindeer husbandry. During the winter months, lichen is the most important fodder for reindeer. Forest management operations are generally considered having a negative impact on reindeer husbandry as harvesting and dense stands remove or obscure the ground lichen cover. In this study, we simulate three different scenarios for forest management, differing in the intensity and types of harvest operations. The resulting 100-year scenarios are analyzed with respect to their estimated suitability for providing reindeer pasture areas. Suitability is determined by vegetation type, stand density and stand height. The results indicate that the current trend of a decrease in lichen area will continue if existing forestry practice prevails. Implementing continuous cover forestry as a management alternative and carrying out precommercial thinning could halt the decrease in reindeer pasture area and even lead to a future increase in pasture area, with losses of approximately 5% in the net present value of forestry.     

Reindeer husbandry in a mountain Sami village in boreal Sweden: the social and economic effect of introducing GPS collars and adaptive forest management

Reindeer husbandry in northern Sweden, Norway, and Finland is an extensive agroforestry system, and the management of reindeer occurs alongside other land uses such as forestry, hunting, and tourism. The economic, social, and environmental impact of using GPS collars to track the reindeer was evaluated in the Sami village of Njaarke in boreal Sweden. A second objective was to evaluate how adapted forest management influenced reindeer husbandry. The results show that the use of GPS tracking enables the improved monitoring of the reindeer but the financial costs were greater than the financial benefits. The increased income did not cover the costs of depreciation and maintenance. Whilst the labour inputs associated with reindeer husbandry were high, 30–40% of the gross value added by village activities were related to hunting, tourism, and the renting of fishing rights. The use of adaptive forest management was assumed to increase the number of reindeer that could be reared through to slaughter and it was calculated to increase the gross value added by reindeer husbandry by more than 30%.     

Drivers and Barriers to Change to Governance in Small-Scale Forestry

The progressive introduction of new modes of governance promoted by the international dialogue on forests during the last 20 years has resulted in a concrete change of the management of the forests, with a new style of relationship between the public authority and the local actors. The change has been considerable in some specific situations, for instance when the State plays a major role in public decisions and when the continuing economic transformation increases the importance of private estates. In both cases, small-scale forestry is especially concerned. Based on detailed examples selected in various situations where this change is significant, in western Europe (Belgium, France, Germany) and in transitioning (Kyrgyzstan, Ukraine) and developing (Marocco) countries, this special issue of the Small-scale Forestry sheds a new light on the capability of small-scale forestry to adapt to a transformation of the system of public decision-making. In most cases analysed, the barriers to adaptation, usually presented as resulting from fragmentation of the management decisions and a great number and diversity of stakeholders, also appear as drivers to change, in a global process where networks of actors are recomposed and power redistributed along a new scheme of national and regional links.     

Of forest,snow and lichen: Sámi reindeer herders’ knowledge of winter pastures in northern Sweden

Over the last few decades, the use of forests both by Sámi reindeer herders and for commercial forestry has been a source of increasing conflict in northern Sweden. Forestry disturbs forest ecosystems and thus damages reindeer pastures, especially those rich in ground lichen, for which reindeer forage during the wintertime by digging through the snow. Despite increased communication between the two groups, the Sámi still feel that their interests are not adequately considered by the commercial forestry sector. This paper presents the results of an interdisciplinary study that comprised semi-directed interviews and participant observations. The objective was to understand the Sámi reindeer herders’ extensive ecological knowledge of winter forest pastures, and the characteristics they observe when managing this resource. The study also analysed specific terminology used by the Sámi herders, to describe, analyse and communicate these properties. These terms, as well as Sámi herder knowledge in general, emphasize the importance of snow cover for reindeer grazing in forest pastures, as well as the effects of forest structure and ground vegetation on variations in snow cover during the winter. Whereas the Western use of the word ‘pasture’ is often associated with a specific plant community, the Sámi herders’ understanding of the word also includes the effect of snow on grazing and for this they use a culturally specific word in their language: guohtun. This term conveys the additional notion of whether it is possible for reindeer to access the pasture under the snow. Sámi herder knowledge and know-how allow them to use the mosaic of forest ecosystems to accommodate variability in snow cover during the wintertime, using different forest areas in response to different grazing conditions. Finally, the authors argue that, in order to promote the balanced, multiple use of boreal forest ecosystems, it is necessary to acknowledge and understand Sámi reindeer herders knowledge and thus to fully integrate their needs and aspirations.     

Is commercial forestry sustainable in South Africa? The changing institutional and policy needs

Commercial forestry is an important industry in South Africa, generating considerable employment and foreign exchange. The industry has grown rapidly since World War II with active government support. However, since the beginning of the transition to democracy in 1991, there have been increasingly vociferous attacks on the industry regarding its urban and big-business bias and its role in damaging the environment. The transition to democracy has brought a change in the structure or make-up of its stakeholders/actor constellations and the dynamics of policy change. As a result, a new network of actors, or coalition, who have different and diverse expectations from the industry, has emerged. This network's primary goal is to monitor and control the environmental functions of commercial forestry, as opposed to the old network whose actors have believed, and continue to do so, that commercial forestry's primary goal is profit maximization. The tension between the two has generated conflicts and the need for a change in the policy and institutions to ensure the sustainability of the industry. In this article, this process of policy change is explained with the help of an advocacy coalition framework; and a set of policy guidelines that might defuse the tension between the two coalitions and set the industry on a sustainable path is briefly discussed.     

Forest management after the economic transition—at the crossroads between German and Scandinavian traditions

Germany and Scandinavia represent two paradigmatic forest management traditions, based on management for volume and management for profit, respectively. This study examines the prevailing silvicultural regimes and resulting economic outcomes in Germany and Sweden as benchmarks, and then corresponding analyses are performed for post-transition EU countries, represented by Poland, Lithuania and Latvia. The analyses reveal a regional gradient where Poland stands closest to the German tradition, Latvia goes through a “scandinavisation”, and Lithuania takes an intermediate position. Poland adheres to longer rotations and follows the principle of self-sufficiency, while economic efficiency has gained increased importance in Latvia. The observed gradient is likely to be sustained in the coming decades as the survey of key forest sector stakeholders reveals ideological patterns that correlate with the pace of reform of State forestry in Poland, Lithuania and Latvia.     

Social capital in small-scale forestry: A local case study in Southern Sweden

Small-scale forestry builds upon interactions among local stakeholders. Forest management entails multiple social situations such as consultations or cooperative engagements between owners and forest professionals. Successful social endeavours rest on positive social capital as operationalised via trust. Based on qualitative in-depth interviews with forest owners, managers and other forestry stakeholders, this study explores how trust influences the social relationships in a local context of Southern Swedish forestry. Most strikingly, the analysis reveals large differences in owners' trust towards two major actors: the Swedish Forest Agency (SFA) and the forest owner association (FOA) Södra. Permanence of personnel, a client-based approach, and personal features of SFA's local forest officer lead to strong local anchoring and high trust towards SFA. Södra proved to be a trustful partner in the aftermath of calamities; however its industrial priorities seem to erode owners' trust. The empirical findings of this study demonstrate the importance of recognising personal relationships and the catalysing role of bonding social capital in order to understand the local forest management situations. Our results are useful for forestry organisations and policy-makers willing to comprehend the local context and implement best practices in small-scale forestry.     

Identifying, managing and monitoring conflicts between forest biodiversity conservation and other human interests in Europe

In this paper, circumstances where various human activities and interests clash with the conservation of forest biodiversity are examined, with particular focus on the drivers behind the conflicts. After identifying past and current human-related threats potentially leading to conflicts in forests, the paper will focus on conflict management and monitoring, with an emphasis on inclusionary stakeholder networks and a range of approaches towards sustainable land use. Three dimensions of conflicts are examined: substance (‘how things are’), procedure (‘how things are done’), and relationships (‘how people behave’). These relations will relate to three conflict management approaches: (1) technical, which may contribute to reduce or solve the conflict acting on the ‘substance’ dimension, (2) political, which may influence the ‘procedure’ dimension of the conflict establishing principles or rules, and (3) cultural, which may affect the ‘relationship’ dimension of the conflict. Finally, a general model of adaptive conflict management emphasising communication among the parties and a participatory approach that involves monitoring of the conflict resolution outcomes is proposed. The recognition that strong perceptions among stakeholders have the potential to aggravate conflicts is central to the concept of a inclusionary conflict management framework, improved communication between all stakeholders, and better awareness of the context of the conflicts is emphasised.     

Public Participation in Forest Landscape Management Planning (FLMP) in Italy

In the early 1990s, public involvement in forest planning was recognized and implemented both at a political and technical level in Europe, whereas in Italy, the participatory approach in forest planning, particularly at landscape level, has become widespread over the last decade. Several actors have been involved and the need to consider the objectives and targets expressed by different stakeholders has progressively increased. More consideration has been given to the outcomes of this involvement for the decision-making process. In the first part of the article, the forest-planning framework in the Italian context is presented, illustrating the role of the different levels of planning: the National Forest Programme (NFP), the Forest Landscape Management Plan (FLMP), and the Forest Unit Management Plan (FUMP). In the second part, the public participation process model, developed by the authors in Italy for the landscape scale, is analyzed by underlining four key attributes: procedure, moment of participation, learning interaction, and delegation of power. Regarding procedure, the five stages of participation adopted—communication and information, stakeholder analysis, first consultation stage, synthesis and preparation of the scenarios, and second consultation stage—are presented in order to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of the methodological approach.     

The forest planning system in relation to the forest resource and forestry policies

The current forest planning system of Japan has been in place since the formulation of the Forest Law back in 1897. During this time, although addressing specified forests as demonstrated in the system for protection forests, in a more general sense, the execution of the forest planning system has placed forestry management at the core. In other words, it has instead been forest administration delivered in a manner relevant to forestry management. This trend is exhibited in, for instance, policies for the reorganization of common forest, the forest management planning system, forest owners associations, the proceeds-sharing reforestation system, cooperative silviculture management, and valley forestry revitalization; which have all been implemented.In this paper I review the results of these practices and explore the contemporary forest owners pattern of behavior. I also discuss the passive attitudes among forest owners, especially in comparison with the attitudes prevalent during the postwar reforestation era, continuing up to the 1960s, and the current tendency towards neglect in the afforested areas, as well as the increasing number of forest owners giving up forestry practice.In the postwar era (up to the 1960s), forestry had been following an upward trend of development that motivated forest owners to afforest, as this was the optimal choice for increasing the familys stocks for future generations (in the manner of holding an asset), and thus a rapid expansion of plantation forests resulted. By the 1970s, when domestic wood supply became less than a half of all domestic wood demand (it is still declining now), forest owners gradually began to lose interest in reforestation and care of the forest as a method of increasing assets. The current share of domestic wood supply in total consumption has dropped to 20%, and the annual cut volume is only 23% of the annual volume increment.Forests are as much a public property as they are private and, moreover, represent a globally significant resource. Active stewardship, such as materializing internationally agreed notions of sustainable forest management, promoting forest certification systems, and complying with the Kyoto Protocol, are now important issues, both domestically and internationally.The paradoxical gap between current forestry trends and public aspirations for forests is widening with each year, thus creating a grave social problem. I have been focusing on forestry revitalization as the primary step towards the resolution of this issue. As the logical basis for executing this policy, I review the relations between forest resource policies and forestry policies.At the same time, by reviewing the forest planning system and its developmental process, I sought to investigate what new policies would fulfill the need to realize the public functions of forests while revitalizing forestry, form the point of view of forestry policies and their influence on the forest planning system. I have concluded that there is a case for separating forest management from forest ownership in units of forest compartments; namely to establish an incorporative management system by which forest owners can invest in their stands.     

“一带一路”背景下利比里亚林业发展状况及中利两国林业合作探析

利比里亚森林资源丰富,但由于内战以及林业管理水平不高等原因,林业开发缓慢,迫切需要外资介入以增强发展动力,改善发展模式,以实现林业产业的可持续发展。近年来我国经济发展迅速,国内木材生产量远低于木材需求量,与利比里亚开展良好的林业合作将是缓解国内木材需求紧张局面的可行途径。文中介绍了利比里亚森林资源概况、林业法规、林业管理机构、林产品生产与贸易和林业开发面临的主要问题,提出了中利两国开展林业合作的领域和建议,以期为两国林业合作提供决策参考。     

The effects of outdoor recreation on range use by semi‐domesticated reindeer

The effects of a large holiday resort on the distribution and range use of semi‐domesticated reindeer were studied in the three most important habitat types in Saariselkä, eastern Finnish Lapland. In two of these habitats the relative reindeer densities increased in winter, when outdoor activities declined reaching density equal to the average for the herding association at a distance of about 10 km from the holiday resort. In summer, male reindeer adapted better than females to the proximity of the holiday resort. The feeding site preferences of the reindeer during winter followed, in general, the normal pattern in areas with little human interference. Although the economic value of the range loss appeared small compared to the gain from outdoor enterprises, better planning is needed to avoid the harmful effects of recreation on reindeer management.     

Above ground biomass changes in the mountain birch forests and mountain heaths of Finnmarksvidda,northern Norway,in the period 1957–2006

Birch forests cover large areas of the northern Fennoscandia and the mountain birch (Betula pubescens ssp. czerepanovii) often forming the altitudinal and Arctic forest and tree lines. Interpreting the factors leading to landscape changes in mountain birch forest involves disturbance from anthropogenic use and climate as important factors. Using vegetation maps based on aerial photographs and satellite images from 7 years in combination with statistical data and ground estimation data of biomass in the period 1957–2006, we were able to assess the transitions among mountain heaths and different types of forest, the displacement of the altitudinal forest line and hence the change in biomass. The tree biomass as well as the growing stock for birch in Finnmarksvidda doubled in the period 1957–2006. Only lichen biomass has been significantly reduced in the period 1957 to 2000, with a subsequent slight increase of lichen biomass in the period 2000 to 2006. The results presented in this paper show significant and positive relationships between measured tree biomass and the increase in reindeer population in the period 1957–2006 in the study area. The hypothesis concerning the removal of the “lichen barrier effect” by heavy reindeer grazing which leads to increased success for birch seeds to germinate and sprout is therefore considered to be valid. However, also, climate change effects like increased precipitation, moth attacks, freezing and thawing events during winter and long-transported air pollution (e.g. nitrogen) may also have reinforced the changes in biomass. Climatic variables from regional weather stations for the period 1955–2006 did not, however, reveal any consistent change except for that the increased snow depth had a negative impact on the reindeer population while increase in snow depth hindering the reindeer in grazing seemed to have a positive impact on the lichen biomass. The ongoing development of increased forest cover and hence elevated forest line will lead to reduction of open habitats, and hence decreased grazing accessibility for the reindeer. The effects on forestry and carbon sequestration are also discussed, and here one of the suggestions is to let the northern birch forests act as carbon sinks contributing to the reduction of total net emission of CO₂ in the Nordic countries. Land use like reindeer husbandry has shown to strongly affect relationships between ecological processes like tree-growth and climate. Moreover, reindeer husbandry is such a widespread human activity in the arctic and boreal region that it might affect the global carbon budget.     

Actor-centred power: The driving force in decentralised community based forest governance

Community forestry has been described as a decentralised mode of forest governance that only partly lives up to its expectations. The power of important actors to misuse the community forestry approach for their self-interests has been reported as a major obstacle to comprehensive success. Hence, this article aims at developing an analytical, theory-based and empirically applicable framework for assessing an actor's power using community forestry as an illustrative case. The actor-centred power approach (ACP) analysis aims to provide a scientific answer to the question of who are the politically most powerful actors in community forestry practices. In making use of suitable components of power theories it builds strongly upon the social relations of actors, organisational aspects and power sources, as described by Weber, Dahl, Etzioni and their adherents. Actor-centred power approach (ACP) is defined as a social relationship in which actor A alters the behaviour of actor B without recognising B's will. In our framework we distinguish between three core elements: coercion, (dis-)incentives and dominant information. These make up the basis for observable facts that involve not only physical actions but also threats by power elements and the very sources of said power elements. Theoretical considerations show that, despite the focus being on actors, by looking to their power sources a considerable part of structural power can be more tangible at least in part, like rules, discourse or ideologies. Furthermore, the paper shows how the actor-centred power approach distinguishes power from other influences on forest management and contributes to the identification of the group of powerful actors on an empirical basis. Due to the focus on actors and well-defined and observable elements of power, the actor-centred power approach (ACP) could serve not only as a basis for research but also as a tool for quick assessment of power networks, delivering valuable preliminary information for designing forest policy in practice.     

Conversion of forests into oil palm plantations in West Kalimantan,Indonesia: Insights from actors' power and its dynamics

Oil palm plantations have been touted as one of the main drivers of deforestation in Indonesia. This paper aims to explain how oil palm companies accumulate power that enables them to control forestland and convert it into oil palm. Specifically, this paper identifies empirical evidence pointing to why oil palm companies emerge as powerful actors in land use conflicts. This paper uses the case of forest lands claimed by different actors – i.e. a timber plantation company, an oil palm company, and local communities – in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Before the decentralisation policy, the interests of timber plantations were principally safeguarded by coercion from the forest ministry. The timber company was also supported by local communities by promising financial incentives to them. Following the decentralisation policy, additional actors get involved in the land use conflicts leading to more complex power interplays. In fact, some forestlands licensed for timber plantations are used by the oil palm company. Oil palm interests resonate with the economic interests of local governments, who use their legal mandates on land use allocation to facilitate the establishment of oil palm. The power of the oil palm company is also enhanced by the support from local communities, to which it handed more financial incentives than those of the timber plantation. It also used dominant information of customary claims and land appropriation by the ministry of forestry, with which it persuades local communities to pressurize government institutions to support oil palm operations.     

Current growth differences of Norway spruce (Picea abies), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and birch (Betula pendula and Betula pubescens) in different regions in Sweden

Abstract

The choice of species in forestry is important, and a real issue as large areas of wind-damaged forest land in southern Sweden need to be regenerated. To compare the growth potential between the most common tree species in Sweden, ratios between site quality derived from site index values determined with site properties were used. A regression function to determine site index for birch from site properties was used to complement the known relationships between site properties and site index for spruce and pine. In large regions of Sweden the distribution of site quality classes was calculated to compare the special characteristics and demands of the three species. On average, the growth difference for pine compared to spruce was about 60% in southern Sweden and 95% in northern Sweden. Corresponding figures between birch and spruce were 40% and 60%. Birch was expected to produce around 60% of pine in northern Sweden and about 70% in southern Sweden. However, it must be stressed that the comparison is based on survey data encompassing mainly naturally regenerated birch, whereas spruce and pine are mainly planted.     

对八面通林业局森林资源状况的分析

从4个方面对八面通林业局森林资源状况进行了详细的分析并做出了评价。