Occurrence and molecular diagnosis of Cryptosporidium serpentis in captive snakes in S?o Paulo, Brazil

The present study aimed to determine whether Cryptosporidium oocysts were present in stools from captive snakes at Funda??o Parque Zoológico (Zoological Park Foundation) in S?o Paulo, Brazil. Two collections were performed; the first in July 2008 and the second in February 2009. Fecal samples were collected from 74 enclosures that housed 101 individuals of 23 snake species. The stool specimens collected from 16 out of the 74 enclosures (21.6%) contained Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts; all of them were confirmed as Cryptosporidium serpentis, using molecular techniques. Only in three (18.7%) out of the 16 enclosures with positive samples were there animals with clinical signs compatible with infection by C. serpentis, such as regurgitation and significant progressive weight loss. From the results, it was concluded that diagnostic examinations need to be performed periodically, even on clinically healthy animals, as a preventive measure.     

氟对奶山羊红细胞影响的研究

氟是机体所必需的微量元素，各种器官内均含有氟，大部分分布在硬组织如骨骼和牙齿中。但过量的氟吸收进入体内可引起多种组织细胞和器官的损害。红细胞作为机体血液循环含量最多的血细胞，有必要深入探讨过量氟化物对红细胞损害的机制，为揭示过量氟导致动物贫血及全身性损害提供有力的证据。     

Granulomatous meningoencephalitis due to toxoplasma gondii in a black-headed night monkey (Aotus nigriceps)

This report describes toxoplasmosis infection in a black-headed night monkey (Aotus nigriceps) from the Zoological Park of the Federal University of Mato Grosso, Brazil. The animal was submitted alive to the Veterinary Hospital of the Federal University of Mato Grosso presenting neurologic clinical signs. There were no improvements on the animal's clinical condition after treatment, so it was euthanized. At necropsy, the most significant gross lesions observed were hemorrhages diffusely scattered throughout the cerebral hemispheres. Histologic findings were characterized by nonsuppurative encephalitis and mild multifocal necrotizing nonsuppurative myocarditis. Groups of tachyzoites and cysts were observed surrounding the inflamed areas of cerebral parenchyma. Sections of the brain were submitted for immunohistochemistry examination for Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum and also for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to determine the presence of Toxoplasma gondii. The samples were positive for Toxoplasma gondii by PCR; however, cross reactivity was observed between Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum antibodies. These findings were consistent with a toxoplasmosis infection in this animal.     

Hepatic necrosis following halothane anesthesia in goats

One goat anesthetized with thiamylal sodium, xylazine, and halothane for repair of an abominal hernia, and 7 of 29 goats similarly anesthetized for an experiment unrelated to considerations of anesthesia, developed signs of hepatic failure within 24 hours of anesthesia. Affected goats had high values for serum aspartate transaminase and serum total bilirubin by 12 to 24 hours after induction of anesthesia. Necropsy of the 8 affected goats revealed centrilobular to massive hepatic necrosis (8 of 8), brain lesions consistent with hepatic encephalopathy (3 of 4), and acute renal tubular necrosis (6 of 6). Two unaffected goats had no hepatic necrosis. Causes of hepatic necrosis other than those related to anesthesia (eg, infectious agents, toxins) were ruled out by lack of supporting necropsy findings or were considered unlikely because of lack of opportunity for exposure. Hepatic lesions in these goats closely resembled those described in human beings with halothane-associated hepatic injury, although in both species these lesions are nonspecific at the gross and light microscopic levels. The pathogenesis of halothane-associated hepatic injury in goats, as in human beings, remains to be determined.     

氟病奶山羊血清细胞因子含量的变化

以奶山羊为实验动物 ,按体重灌服氟化钠复制奶山羊氟病模型 ,通过对血清细胞因子的检测 ,进一步探讨氟病的发生机理。结果表明 :氟可引起白细胞介素 2 (IL 2 )、白细胞介素 6 (IL 6)含量降低 ;肿瘤坏死因子 (TNF)含量升高。证明氟引起细胞因子含量的变化是氟致机体免疫抑制的机制之一。     

Mortality of captive black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) at Smithsonian's National Zoological Park, 1989-2004.

Black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) mortality was investigated retrospectively based on the pathology records of 107 captive animals held at Smithsonian's National Zoological Park from 1989 to 2004. The majority of deaths in neonates were due to cannibalism (n = 42; 64.6%) and maternal trauma (n = 11; 16.9%); both of these causes of mortality decreased during the study period. Prior to 2001, juvenile mortality was most often caused by gastrointestinal disease (n = 11; 52.4%), including coccidiosis, salmonellosis, and clostridium infection. In 2001, improvements in husbandry, hygiene, and medical treatment led to decreases in juvenile mortality associated with gastrointestinal disease. The most common causes of death in adult ferrets were renal or neoplastic disease. The etiology of the high prevalence of renal disease in the last 4 yr of the study is unknown; it was not associated with increasing age or inbreeding. Improved hygiene and vigilant monitoring for signs of gastrointestinal and renal disease will continue to improve the success of the captive propagation of this species.     

Successful treatment of suspected exertional myopathy in a rhea (Rhea americana).

A 7-yr-old, adult, female greater rhea (Rhea americana) from the National Zoological Park presented with a 24-hr history of severe left leg lameness that progressed to an inability to stand. Blood work revealed creatine phosphokinase (CPK) above 50,000 U/L and elevated lactate dehydrogenase. The bird's condition deteriorated over the next week. The bird's CPK increased to over 208,400 U/L. Aggressive intravenous fluids and physical therapy along with oral anxiolytic and muscle-relaxant drugs were instituted. After 2 wk of aggressive therapy, initial signs of improvement were noted. By day 28, the bird was able to walk unassisted with no noticeable lameness. This is one of the few reported cases of successful treatment of suspected ratite exertional myopathy. It is believed that success in this case can be attributed to persistent, aggressive physical therapy, muscle relaxants, and anxiolytics aimed to counteract the hyperexcitable nature of these birds.     

Early detection of viral excretion from experimentally infected goats with peste-des-petits ruminants virus

We observed 15 goats for 9 days after subcutaneous infection with 10(3) TCID(50) with isolates of peste-des-petits ruminants virus from Africa and India and five concurrent, uninfected control goats. Typical clinical signs of the infection were present in all 15 infected goats by day 8 and in most by day 6 and some signs were present by day 4. However, 6 out of 15 goats already have detectable virus shedding by day 3 and four more were shedding by day 4 and every goat had virus shedding for at least 1 day before the recognition of clinical signs. This experiment indicates that incubatory carriers therefore might play a role in the transmission of PPRV among small ruminants.     

Isolation of Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides from Polyarthritis and Mastitis of Goats in Canada

The clinical signs, pathomorphological changes, and microbiological findings in Canadian goats infected with Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides are discussed. The disease affected mainly young goats and was characterized by septicemia and polyarthritis. Mastitis followed by septicemia was seen in two mature goats. The diagnosis was made by culture and identification of the mycoplasma. Infected goats without clinical signs were identified by cultural and serological (complement fixation) techniques. Healthy carriers are presumably able to transmit the infection and may have brought the disease to Canada.     

Experimental infection of alpine goats with a Moroccan strain of peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV)

Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) recently caused a serious outbreak of disease in Moroccan sheep and goats. Alpine goats were highly susceptible to PPRV with mortality rates approaching 100%, as opposed to local breeds of sheep which were less susceptible to the disease. The relative susceptibility of alpine goats was investigated through an experimental infection study with the Moroccan strain of PPRV. Severe clinical signs were observed in the alpine goats with virus being excreted through ocular, nasal and oral routes. No difference in the severity of the disease in goats was observed with different inoculation routes and transmission of the virus by direct contact was confirmed. This study confirmed the susceptibility of the alpine goat to PPRV infection and describes a challenge protocol that effectively and consistently reproduced severe clinical signs of PPR in experimentally infected goats.     

Transmission of bovine viral diarrhea virus to adult goats from persistently infected cattle.

The transmission of bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) from persistently infected (PI) heifers to adult seronegative goats was examined in this study. Ten seronegative adult goats were exposed to 4 PI heifers. None of the goats developed any clinical signs but all goats seroconverted by 42 days after exposure to the PI cattle. Results indicate that goats are susceptible to BVDV infection when housed with PI cattle.     

Toxicity of Jatropha curcas in sheep and goats

The sequential development of the clinical signs and lesions in the organs of desert sheep and Nubian goats dosed with Jatropha curcas seeds at 0.05, 0.5 and 1 g/kg/day was studied. Diarrhoea, reduced water consumption, dehydration, sunken eyes, inappetence and loss in condition were the important signs of J curcas poisoning in sheep and goats. The main pathological changes were haemorrhage in the rumen, reticulum, lungs, kidneys and heart, catarrhal and/or haemorrhagic enteritis, hepatic fatty change, pulmonary congestion and oedema and straw-coloured fluid in serous cavities. An increase in the concentrations of AST, ammonia, potassium and sodium and a decrease in total protein and calcium were detected in the serum. Haematological changes were haemoconcentration and leucocytosis.     

Relapse infection after chemotherapy in goats experimentally infected with Trypanosoma brucei: pathological changes in central nervous system

Fourteen goats were experimentally infected with Trypanosoma brucei with the following results: Four animals became terminally ill 24 to 47 days after inoculation of trypanosomes and were killed for necropsy. A second group of four goats became sick, had signs of systemic trypanosomiasis, were treated with diminazine aceturate (Berenil) and recovered showing no signs of disease over observation periods of 151 to 163 days. A third group of six goats, were treated with Berenil and temporarily recovered and in 60 to 79 days after therapy; four of these goats underwent relapse infection characterized by severe central nervous system (CNS) disease. Two of these goats were necropsied 45 days after chemotherapy, before clinical signs were evident, to show early neurological lesions. In group 3 (the relapse group), the microscopic changes became more severe as relapse infection progressed. Microscopically, the central nervous system lesions were edema, hyperemia, and infiltration of plasma cells, small lymphocytes, and some macrophages in the leptomeninges, choroid plexus, and brain parenchyma. Relapse infection is discussed from the standpoint of an occult phase of the disease where parasites are protected from the effects of trypanocidal drugs by the blood-brain barrier.     

Experimental infection of pregnant and lactating goats with Leptospira interrogans serovars hardjo and szwajizak

Pathogenesis of 2 Leptospira serovars, hardjo and szwajizak, was studied in pregnant and lactating goats. Although clinical signs of leptospiral infection were minimal, cultural isolations were made from the mammary gland of 2 goats and the kidney of 1 goat inoculated with serovar hardjo (C846). The isolations were made only on solid bovine albumin polysorbate-80 medium supplemented either with rabbit serum or sodium pyruvate. Cultural isolations of serovar szwajizak were made from kidney, liver, brain, urine, and mammary gland samples of 1 goat and the liver and kidney samples of its kids. These isolations were made in only the solid bovine albumin polysorbate-80 medium which had been supplemented with normal goat serum.     

An epornitic of duck viral enteritis in a zoological park.

An epornitic of duck viral enteritis occurred at the National Zoological Park in the spring of 1975. The disease affected 8 different species of ducks; geese and swan were spared. Diagnosis was based on characteristic pathologic changes, with herpetic inclusion bodies in the epithelium of the digestive tract and liver, and by viral isolation from 4 ducks. An experimental attenuated live-virus vaccine and sanitizing procedures were used to control the epornitic.     

Clinical signs, treatment, and postmortem lesions in dairy goats with enterotoxemia: 13 cases (1979-1982).

Enterotoxemia attributable to Clostridium perfringens type D in goats is difficult to diagnose because of a lack of specific clinical signs or postmortem lesions, on which to base the diagnosis. This report describes the clinical signs, postmortem lesions, and clinical responses to treatment and vaccination in 4 goat herds, in which a diagnosis of enterotoxemia was confirmed. Four clinical cases had the diagnosis confirmed on the basis of signs of diarrhea or sudden death and the isolation of C perfringens and epsilon toxin from the feces at the time of admission. The 10 necropsy cases were diagnosed on the basis of the isolation of C perfringens (not typed) or epsilon toxin from the intestinal contents of goats that died with clinical signs compatible with enterotoxemia and without lesions associated with a second serious disease. Enterocolitis was the most consistent lesion reported at necropsy in the 10 goats with enterotoxemia. Ovine enterotoxemia vaccines were of limited value in preventing enterotoxemia. These observations imply that naturally induced enterotoxemia in goats involves a different pathophysiologic mechanism than that associated with enterotoxemia in sheep.     

Investigations on the treatment of cerebrospinal nematode infections in goats

In 17 goats the therapeutical outcome of cerebrospinal nematodiasis, a parasitic infection in the central nervous system with the nematode Elaphostrongylus cervi, is described. The diagnosis was made on the basis of physical findings and cerebrospinal fluid eosinophilia. The therapy was based on the administration of a non-steroidal antiinflammatory drug (flunixin meglumine) and two anthelmintics (fenbendazol, ivermectin) for five days. The response to therapy was documented immediately and 30 days after therapy and by owners report up to 30 months. Eleven goats (64.7%) showed an improvement of the neurological signs directly after therapy. Three had a complete recovery. Signs of a light and middle ataxie were still present in 6 and 2 goats, respectively. Six recumbent goats (35.3%) had to be euthanasied because of a non-therapeutical response. This study has shown a clinical impression of successful use of flunixin meglumine, fenbendazole and ivermectin in goats with light to middle neurological signs. The goats could accommodate the remaining ataxia without showing a reduced production. Goats with high neurological deficits could not be successful treated based on the high degree of the neurological damage.     

Ultrastructure of cellular changes in the replication of the alcelaphine herpesvirus-1 of malignant catarrhal fever

Cell cultures inoculated with 5 different viral isolates from 4 species of ruminants with clinical signs of malignant catarrhal fever (from the San Diego Wild Animal Park) were examined by electron microscopy. Each had the morphology of a herpesvirus (118 to 220 nm) and was icosahedral, and the nucleocapsid matured in the nucleus of the infected cell. Envelopment of budding occurred with each viral isolate at the nuclear and the plasma membranes. The virions egressed from the cell by budding from the plasma membrane or through channels of the Golgi apparatus or the endoplasmic reticulum. A proposed scheme for the morphogenesis of the herpesvirus of malignant catarrhal fever is presented.     

Copper toxicosis in a dairy goat herd

CASE DESCRIPTION: A closed herd of 400 mixed-breed dairy goats was examined because of a decrease in milk production and increase in mortality rate. Nine animals had died within a 1-month period. CLINICAL FINDINGS: Clinical signs were evident only in lactating goats and included anorexia and recumbency. In the most severely affected goats, signs progressed to neurologic abnormalities and death. Serum aspartate aminotransferase activity, gamma-glutamyltransferase activity, and total bilirubin concentration were high in clinically affected does, but no evidence of hemolysis was found. A diagnosis of copper toxicosis was made on the basis of high liver and kidney copper concentrations and histologic evidence of hepatic necrosis. Goats were found to have been fed a mineral mix containing 3,050 ppm copper for 9 months prior to the onset of copper toxicosis. Overall, there was no consistent relationship between serum hepatic enzyme activities, serum copper concentration, and liver copper concentration. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME: Clinically affected goats were treated with penicillamine, ammonium molybdate, sodium thiosulfate, and vitamin E. Penicillamine increased urine copper excretion in treated does versus untreated control animals. An increased incidence of infectious disease was identified in the herd 9 months later. Liver vitamin E concentration was low in 10 of the 12 goats that underwent necropsy. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Findings suggested that penicillamine may be an effective treatment for goats with copper toxicosis. Production losses months after the diagnosis was made suggested that the intoxication had a prolonged animal welfare and economic impacts.     

Responses of serum electrolytes of goats to twelve hours of road transportation during the hot-dry season in Nigeria, and the effect of pretreatment with ascorbic acid

Twenty goats which served as the experimental group were administered ascorbic acid (AA) per os at a dosage rate of 100 mg/kg body mass, while 20 others served as controls and were given 10 ml each of sterile water. Forty minutes after the administration and loading, the goats were transported for 12 h. Handling and loading of the experimental and control groups of goats decreased (P < 0.05) the potassium and sodium serum concentrations. The concentration of serum chloride, sodium and calcium increased significantly (P < 0.05) immediately post-transportation, while potassium and magnesium decreased (P < 0.05) in the control goats. In AA-treated goats sodium and magnesium concentrations decreased abruptly (P < 0.05), while calcium increased significantly (P < 0.05) after transportation. Handling, loading and transportation adversely affected the electrolyte balance of the goats which suggested respiratory alkalosis, dehydration and muscular damage in the transported goats, and the administration of AA alleviated the adverse effects of road transportation stress on serum electrolytes.