Promoting intake of Cratylia argentea as a dry season supplement for cattle grazing Hyparrhenia rufa in the subhumid tropics

Cratylia argentea, a drought tolerant shrub, is known to produce significant amounts of fodder during the dry season but little is known of its nutritive value for feeding animals. Two studies of quality and intake of Cratylia argentea, as an arboreal protein supplement for crossbred dual purpose cattle grazing Hyparrenhia rufa in the dry season, were carried out in San Miguel de Barranca, Puntarenas, Costa Rica (January–May). The first experiment was a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of two forms of C. argentea foliage presentation: 1) fresh or wilted; and 2) sprayed or not with sugarcane molasses diluted in water. Wilting did not affect crude protein content and in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) but treating fresh C. argentea with molasses increased IVDMD by from 55.6 to 60.8% (P < 0.01). Intake of fresh C. argentea increased by 32% with wilting and by 43% with molasses treatment. Pooling data across treatments, a quadratic relationship between dry matter intake of H. rufa (y) and the amount of N consumed in C. argentea (x) was found (y = 1.25 + 0.095x – 0.001x ²). In the second experiment, milk production from the following treatments was evaluated: 1) chicken litter and molasses (D₁); 2) chicken litter, sugar cane and wheat bran (D₂); and 3) C. argentea, sugar cane and wheat bran (D₃). Milk yields averaged 6.0 kg cow^–1 day^–1 and there were no significant differences between treatments. Milk fat was lower for D₂ (2.7%), which had a higher amount of sugar cane in the diet, but differences were not significant. On the other hand, non-fat solids and lactose concentration of milk was higher (P < 0.05) for D₂. Wilting or molasses treatment were effective management strategies for increasing dry matter intake of C. argentea. A higher dry matter intake of C. argentea was associated with increased intake of the fibrous H. rufa grass. Diets with C. argentea as the main protein source gave similar milk production levels and quality to those with chicken litter.     

Improving rumen fermentation and milk production with legume-tree fodder in the tropics

Feeding leguminous fodder that is high in protein can improve rumen fermentation parameters leading to increased digestibility and intake of low quality fibrous feeds, and hence improved animal production. The effect on dry matter (DM) degradation and rumen fermentation parameters of feeding urea or tree legume foliage (Erythrina poeppigiana or Gliricidia sepium), as protein supplements to a basal diet of Hyparrhenia rufa hay, rice bran and molasses, was studied with rumen fistulated steers (Zebu × Creole crossbreeds). In a second experiment, Jersey × Creole crossbreeds were used to determine the effect of the above three treatments on milk production. Both experiments were conducted at CATIE's experimental farm, Turrialba, Costa Rica (9°58 N; 83°31 W; 639 m above sea level; mean annual precipitation of 2600 mm; mean daily temperature 22 °C). The disappearance of hay DM in the rumen increased with time to 144 hours and potential degradation of hay DM was significantly higher (P < 0.05) for the legume diets compared to urea but there were no differences between legume species. Legume based rations resulted in total volatile fatty acid concentrations of rumen licor that were 15 to 24% higher than for urea based rations (P < 0.05). The concentration of rumen NH₃-N was highest two hours after feeding and tended to decrease in time. The urea ration resulted in significantly higher NH₃-N than the legume rations, reaching 45 mg/100 mL two hours after feeding. Milk yields did not differ (P > 0.05) when cows received either E. poeppigiana or G. sepium foliages as protein supplements (7.3 and 7.4 kg milk/cow/day, respectively) but they were superior (P < 0.05) to urea supplementation (6.7 kg milk/cow/day).     

Species and site selection for timber production on farm boundaries in the humid Atlantic Lowlands of Costa Rica and Panama

In 1987–89 the CATIE-GTZ Agroforestry Project set up experiments with five timber tree species planted in single lines on twelve farm boundaries in cooperation with local farmers. When the trees were five years old, their height, diameter and total stem volume were: Acacia mangium 17 m, 19 cm and 67 m³ km^–1, Cordia alliodora 14 m, 20 cm and 46 m³ km^–1, Eucalyptus deglupta 22 m, 24 cm and 85 m³ km^–1, Tectona grandis 17 m, 20 m and 64 m³ km^–1, Terminalia ivorensis 18 m, 23 cm and 104 m³ km^–1. Considering these excellent growth rates, planting of Cordia alliodora, Eucalyptus deglupta and Tectona grandis in lines on farm boundaries should be promoted. T. ivorensis and A. mangium are not recommendable for sites with impeded drainage because of mortality caused by root rot, mostly due to Rosellinia sp.     

Nutrient stocks of short-term fallows on a high base status soil in the humid tropics of Papua New Guinea

In order to understand nutrient dynamics in tropical farming systems with fallows, it is necessary to assess changes in nutrient stocks in plants, litter and soils. Nutrient stocks (soil, above ground biomass, litter) were assessed of one-year old fallows with Piper aduncum, Gliricidia sepium and Imperata cylindrica in the humid lowlands of Papua New Guinea. The experiment was conducted on a high base status soil (Typic Eutropepts), and in Papua New Guinea such soils are intensively used for agriculture. Soil samples were taken prior to fallow establisment and after one year when the fallows were slashed and above ground biomass and nutrients measured. The above ground and litter biomass of piper was 13.7 Mg dry matter ha^-1, compared to 23.3 Mg ha^-1 of gliricidia and 14.9 Mg ha^-1 of imperata. Gliricidia produced almost 7 Mg ha^-1 wood. Total above ground biomass returned to the soil when the fallows were slashed was the same for piper and gliricidia (8 Mg ha^-1). Gliricidia accumulated the largest amounts of all major nutrients except for K, which was highest in the above ground piper biomass. Imperata biomass contained the lowest amount of nutrients. The largest stocks of C, N, Ca and Mg were found in the soil, whereas the majority of P was found in the above ground biomass and litter. Almost half of the total K stock of piper and gliricidia was in the biomass. During the fallow period, soil organic C significantly increased under gliricidia fallow whereas no net changes occurred in piper and imperata fallows. The study has shown large differences in biomass and nutrient stocks between the two woody fallows (piper, gliricidia) and between the woody fallows and the non-woody fallow (imperata). Short-term woody fallows are to be preferred above grass (imperata) fallows in the humid lowlands of Papua New Guinea because of higher nutrient stocks.     

Comparative performance of four multi-purpose trees associated with four grass species in the humid regions of Southern India

The results of a field trial conducted at the Livestock Research Station, Thiruvazhamkunnu, Kerala to study the compatibility of different components in a silvo-pastoral system revealed that growth and yield of fodder species were significantly influenced by the tree components only after tree canopy formation. The fodder species such as Pennisetum purpureum Schum., Panicum maximum Jacq., Brachiaria ruziziensis Griseb. and Euchlaena mexicana Schrad. grown in association with Casuarina equisetifolia J. R. & G. Forst. and Ailanthus malabarica DC recorded comparatively higher forage yield even after canopy formation. However, forage crops grown in combination with Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth. and Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit. registered relatively lower values for growth and yield. Increased light infiltration into the understorey due to the cladophyllous canopy can be attributed as reason for the higher fodder productivity under Casuarina. Due to the combination of crown size and shape, tree height and spacing the amount of light intercepted by Ailanthus also was very low. Among the four multi-purpose trees used, Acacia recorded the maximum growth rate followed by Casuarina, Ailanthus and Leucaena. Forage productivity of the four species was in the order: Pennisetum purpureum > Panicum maximum > Brachiaria ruziziensis > Euchlaena mexicana. Casuarina with Pennisetum/ Panicm were found to be optimal tree — forage combinations for silvo-pastoral systems.     

Establishment and early growth characteristics of six Paulownia genotypes for goat browse in Raleigh, NC, USA

Meat goat production in the eastern USA is increasing as a result of growing demand from various ethnic groups. Because goats naturally prefer a high proportion of browse in their diets, research was initiated to investigate various silvopastoral production systems. The genus Paulownia contains several species which exhibit rapid juvenile growth and other characteristics that justify research into their potential use in meat goat feeding systems. In May 1997, six Paulownia genotypes were planted in a randomized complete block experiment with six replications. Trees were between 6 and 12 cm in height at planting. Genotypes included: P. fortunei seedlings, P. tomentosa seedlings, P. elongata seedlings and three P. elongata clones. Each 4-m wide plot contained a single row of 12 trees with an intra-row spacing of 1 m. Plant measurements included height, root collar diameter (RCD) at 3 cm above soil surface, and the number of main branches. Leaf samples were collected from all six replications for estimates of herbage quality. During 1998, trees were browsed with goats on two occasions to assess palatability of the herbage and to determine any preference for specific genotypes by the animals. Compared with seedling trees of all three species, the three P. elongata clones were taller (clones: 79.7 cm, seedlings: 55.9 cm; P < 0.01), had larger RCDs (clones: 18.4 mm, seedlings: 13.9 mm; P < 0.01) and had a higher branching frequency (clones: 4.9, seedlings: 1.5; P < 0.01) by the end of the first growing season. Mortality averaged 4.8% across all treatments and ranged between 0 and 8%. Early in the 1998 growing season before trees were browsed, P. elongata clones grew more rapidly than seedlings (clones: 116.4 cm, seedlings: 84.1 cm; P < 0.01). Estimates of herbage quality indicated favorable concentrations of energy and protein for lamina. In vitro true dry matter disappearance ranged from 85.4 (blades) to 71.5% (petioles) and crude protein from 25.1 (blades) to 4.9% (petioles). Animals readily browsed the lamina during two separate sessions, but no clear preference trends were observed among the different Paulownia genotypes.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

An evaluation of silvopastoral systems in pine plantations in the Central Highlands of Ecuador

One of the most serious problems facing Andean nations today is population growth and the resultant pressures placed on limited natural resources. Currently,thousands of hectares of pine plantations in the central highlands of Ecuador are left unmanaged and unutilized, while at the same time local agriculturalists lack grazing land,firewood and other basic necessities which could be provided by appropriate forest management. This paper evaluates ten pine plantations in central Ecuador for their potential as silvopastoral systems, and discusses the possibilities of integrating local farmers into the appropriate management and use of them.

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Resúmen Uno de los problemas mas graves afrontando a los paises Andinos es el crecimiento de la población y las presiones que resultan sobre los recursos naturales. Al momento, miles de hectáreas de plantaciones de pino en la Sierra central del Ecuador se quedan sin que nadie les maneje ni les utilize; mientras tanto los agricultores cercanos sufren por falta de pastoreo, leña y otras necesidades que se podría conseguir a través del manejo forestal. Este documento examine diez rodales de pino en el Ecuador por su potencial como sistemas silvopastoriles, y discute las posibilidades de integrar agricultores pequeños dentro del manejo y uso apropriado de ellos.

     

Modelling agroforestry systems of cacao (Theobroma cacao) with laurel (Cordia alliodora) and poro (Erythrina poeppigiana) in Costa Rica II. Cacao and wood production,litter production and decomposition

During 7 years (1979–1985) cacao harvests (beans and husks) have been recorded for the agroforestry systems ofTheobroma cacao underCordia alliodora andErythrina poeppigiana shade trees. The mean oven dry cacao yields were 626 and 712 kg.ha^–1.a^–1 cocoa beans underC. alliodora andE. poeppigiana respectively. Harvests have gradually increased over the years and the plantation has now reached maturity.Annual extraction of N, P, K, Ca and Mg in fruits, which is relatively small, was calculated on the basis of chemical analyses. The following average values were found (kg.ha^–1.a^–1): At the age of 8 years, theC. alliodora trees have reached 26.7 cm diameter (DBH) and 14.0 m in height. Mean annual growth (from age 5 to 7) is 14.6 m³.ha^–1.a^–1.Natural plant residue production has been measured for 4 years (Nov. 1981–Oct. 1985). UnderE. poeppigiana it has reached a value of 8.91 t.ha^–1.a^–1 and underC. alliodora 7.07 t.ha^–1.a^–1. The shade trees have contributed 57 and 47% respectively. Transference and decomposition rates are high and important in the nutrient cycles.The nutrient content of the litter was analysed and corresponding average yearly transfers were (kg.ha^–1.a^–1): For part I see Vol. 4, No. 3, 1986.Agroforestry Project, CATIE/GTZ (Tropical Agricultural Research and Training Center/Gesselschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit), Turrialba, Costa Rica     

Modelling agroforestry systems of cacao (Theobroma cacao) with laurel (Cordia alliodora) and poro (Erythrina poeppigiana) in Costa Rica II. Cacao and wood production,litter production and decomposition

During 7 years (1979–1985) cacao harvests (beans and husks) have been recorded for the agroforestry systems ofTheobroma cacao underCordia alliodora andErythrina poeppigiana shade trees. The mean oven dry cacao yields were 626 and 712 kg.ha⁻¹.a⁻¹ cocoa beans underC. alliodora andE. poeppigiana respectively. Harvests have gradually increased over the years and the plantation has now reached maturity. Annual extraction of N, P, K, Ca and Mg in fruits, which is relatively small, was calculated on the basis of chemical analyses. The following average values were found (kg.ha⁻¹.a⁻¹): At the age of 8 years, theC. alliodora trees have reached 26.7 cm diameter (DBH) and 14.0 m in height. Mean annual growth (from age 5 to 7) is 14.6 m³.ha⁻¹.a⁻¹. Natural plant residue production has been measured for 4 years (Nov. 1981–Oct. 1985). UnderE. poeppigiana it has reached a value of 8.91 t.ha⁻¹.a⁻¹ and underC. alliodora 7.07 t.ha⁻¹.a⁻¹. The shade trees have contributed 57 and 47% respectively. Transference and decomposition rates are high and important in the nutrient cycles. The nutrient content of the litter was analysed and corresponding average yearly transfers were (kg.ha⁻¹.a⁻¹): For part I see Vol. 4, No. 3, 1986. Agroforestry Project, CATIE/GTZ (Tropical Agricultural Research and Training Center/Gesselschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit), Turrialba, Costa Rica     

Management of secondary tree species in agroforestry systems to improve production sustainability in Amazonian Ecuador

Three production systems (robusta coffee, cattle pastures and swidden agriculture), all associated with trees, have provided a strategy for regional development in the Ecuadorian Amazon. Feedback from more than 250 on-farm demonstrations, project evaluations and visitors have all contributed to strengthening the ability of the Ecuadorean Ministry of Agriculture's Forestry Directorate to provide colonists and indigenous groups with management guidelines for low-input sustainable agroforestry production. The existing market for 20 fastgrowing native tree species presents an opportunity for the diversification of farm income (currently dependent on robusta coffee) and for the development of a forest industrial base.The collective area of land owned and operated by these small holders constitutes a national resource and a Collective Forest Estate that can be individually managed. Commercial timber production in these extensive secondary forests can help alleviate conversion of primary forest without taking agricultural land out of production.     

Crown development and biomass production of pollardedErythrina berteroana,E. fusca andGliricidia sepium in the humid tropical lowlands of Costa Rica

Leguminous trees are widely used to support climbers such as black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) and vanilla (Vanilla planifolia Andr.), to provide shade to crops and to maintain soil fertility. Pruning or pollarding provides the means to maximize benefits from the trees, particularly through the production of biomass as a soil amendment. At the same time, excessive shading is reduced. In order to quantify the degree of shading of black pepper by the support trees during a six-month pollarding cycle, this study monitored crown development (part I) and light transmission (part II) of three widely used species,Erythrina berteroana Urban,E. fusca Loureiro andGliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Steud.The two sites were in the humid Atlantic Lowlands of Talamanca, southern Costa Rica (mean annual rainfall 2460 mm, no distinct dry season), on alluvial soils (typic Tropofluvents) with low levels of K, P, Mn and Zn. Two-year-old trees, that had been established from cuttings as live supports for black pepper, were used for the study. They were pollarded twice per year. The variables measured/estimated monthly were: stem diameter at breast height (dbh); height, foliated height, depth, diameter, leaf area and leaf biomass of crowns; length, diameter, number and inclination of branches. Leaf nutrient contents were also determined.Following pollarding,G. sepium was the first to resprout, followed byE. berteroana andE. fusca. G. sepium with its few but erect and long branches had slender, columnar crowns. while those ofE. berteroana andE. fusca were more spherical. Four months after pollarding,G. sepium started shedding leaves at the base of its branches. Average crown diameter after six months were 2.2 m forE. berteroana, 1.9 m forE. fusca and 1.5 m forG. sepium; average crown depths after six months were 2.8 m, 2.1 m, and 2.7 m, respectively, for the three species. For 1600 trees ha^–1 and two prunings per year, foliar biomass production from prunings alone (i.e., without litter fall), calculated from regressions with length and basal diameter of branches as independent variables, was 3.8 t, 3.4 t and 2.3 t dry matter ha^–1 a^–1 forE. berteroana, E. fusca andG. sepium, respectively; these estimates agreed well with measured values. The corresponding N contents were 146 kg, 124 kg and 90 kg, respectively. While N contributions from the prunings exceeded 50% of the fertilizer recommendations for black pepper, the contributions were <10% for P and <40% for K. Linear regressions between leaf area and branch dimensions, and quadratic regressions between foliar biomass and crown diameter showed high coefficients of determination (0.83>R ²>0.99). Correlations between foliar biomass, dbh, and dbh increments were generally weak. Conclusions from the study appear to be valid also for other agroforestry systems where the same species are planted under similar ecological conditions for reasons other than as live supports.

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Resumen Los árboles leguminosos se usan frecuentamente como soportes vivos para plantas trepadoras como pimienta negra (Piper nigrum L.) y vainilla (Vanilla planifolia Andr.), para dar sombra y para reducir el desgaste de los suelos. La poda de los árboles reduce la cantidad mantener la fertilidad de sombra y produce biomasa que sirve como enmiendas. Con el objectivo de cuantificar el grado del sombreado de pimienta negra por los árboles durante un cíclo de poda de seis meses, se monitoreó en este estudio el desarrollo de la copa (parte I) y la transmisión de luz (parte II) de tres especies usados como soportes vivos:Erythrina berteroana Urban,E. fusca Loureiro yGliricidia sepium (Jacq) Steud.Los dos sitios estan en la zona tropical húmeda de Talamanca Baja, en el sureste de Costa Rica (precipitación promedia 2460 mm, sin estación seca) en suelos aluviales (Typic Tropofluvents) y pobres en K, P, Mn y Zn. Los árboles fueron establecidos de estacas. Cuando este estudio empezó, los árboles tenían dos años de edad y fueron podados dos veces por año. Los parámetros medidos ó estimados mensualmente fueron: diámetro del tronco a la altura del pecho (DAP); altura, altura foliada, profundidad, diámetro, área foliar y biomasa foliar de las copas; largo, diámetro, número y inclinación de las ramas. Además se determinó el contenido de nutrientes de las hojas.Despues de la poda,G. sepium fue el primero en rebrotar, seguido porE. berteroana yE. fusca. G. sepium con sus ramas escasas pero largas y erectas, formó una copa delgada y columnar, mientras que las copas deE. berteroana yE. fusca fueron más esféricas. Cuatro meses después de la poda,G. sepium empezó a perder las hojas en la base de sus ramas. El promedio del diámetro de la copa después de seis meses fue de 2.2 m paraE. berteroana, 1.9 m paraE. fusca y 1.5 m paraG. sepium; el promedio de la profundidad de la copa después de seis meses fú de 2.8 m, 2.1 m y 2.7 m, respectivamente para las tres especies. Para 1600 árboles ha^–1 y dos podas por año, la producción estimada de biomasa foliar de la poda (sin tomar en cuenta la hojarasca caída antes), calculada de regresiónes con el largo y el diámetro basal de las ramas como variables independientes, fue de 3.8 t, 3.4 t y 2.3 t de matéria seca ha^–1 a^–1 paraE. berteroana, E. fusca yG. sepium, respectivamente; estos valores calculados concordaron bien con valores medidos. El contenido de N correspondiente fué de 146 kg, 124 kg, y 90 kg, respectivamente. Mientras que la contribución de N procedente de las podas excedió 50% de una recomendación de fertilización común para pimienta negra, la contribución de P fue inferior al 10%, y menos del 40% para K. Regresiones lineales entre área foliar y las dimensiones de la ramas, y regresiones cuadraticas entre biomasa foliar y el diámetro de la copa mostraron altos coeficientes de determinación (0.83>R ²>0,99). Las correlaciones entre biomasa foliar, el DAP y incrementos del DAP fueron generalmente débiles. Las conclusiones de éste estudio parecen válidas tambien para sistemas agroforestales donde las especies estudiadas son plantadas bajo condiciones ecológicas similares para propósitos diferentes de como soportes vivos.

     

The biology, ecology and agroforestry potential of the raintree, Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr.

Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr. (syn. Albizia saman (Jacq.) F. v. Muell.) is a large tree, native to tropical America, which has now become widespread throughout the humid and subhumid tropics. Although noted as a promising agroforestry species, there is little specific research that substantiates this potential. On the basis of a review of its biology, ecology and recorded uses, it is concluded that the most appropriate use for S. saman would be in an extensive silvopastoral system for cattle production. The tree provides excellent protective shade, and produces highly palatable pods that are suitable as a dry season feed supplement. Additionally, there are reports of enhanced grass production beneath its canopy indicating a potential role in maintaining or improving the productivity of tropical grasslands. It is concluded that the tree should receive more research attention, focusing particularly on its interaction with the herbaceous understorey and the identification of provenances adapted to a variety of environmental conditions. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Vegetative propagation of Ziziphus mauritiana var. Gola by micrografting and its potential for dissemination in the Sahelian Zone

The jujube tree (Ziziphus mauritiana Lam., Rhamnaceae family) is an exotic species which is commonly found in the Sahelian and Sudanian areas of Africa. A programme was undertaken in Senegal to introduce domesticated varieties and adapt them to the edaphic and climatic specificities of the Sahel. Research focussed on the ‘Gola’ variety, multiplied by an in vitro micrografting technique which is a miniaturisation of the apex splice, involving the aseptic grafting of miniature scions (5 to 10 mm long) onto the hypocotyl of seedlings in vitro. Studies reported here include the choice and preparation of rootstock, the micrografting technique, acclimation of the grafts, and transplantation to the field. The outcome of this research is the achievement of successful establishment of over 80% of the micrografts. However, more work is required to evaluate the transferability of the techniques through a study of their economic viability, as well as their acceptability to local people. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Adoption of agroclimatograms for assisting species selection in the tropics

Agroclimatograms are presented for assisting species selection in the tropics by analyzing agroclimatological factors and similarities. The diagrams include data for temperature, precipitation, water budget and potential evapotranspiration (PET). A computer program to calculate the PET is provided and Adansonia digitata L. (baobab) is used as an illustrative example.     

Persistence of soil and foliar azadirachtin treatments to control sweetpotato whitefly Bemisia tabaci Gennadius (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) on tomatoes under controlled (laboratory) and field (netted greenhouse) conditions in the humid tropics

Persistence of neem-based products against sweetpotato whitefly Bemisia tabaci Gennadius (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) was tested in air conditioned rearing rooms and tropical netted greenhouses (GHs). Two commercial neem products, NeemAzal^®-T/S (1% azadirachtin) and NeemAzal^®-U (17% azadirachtin), were used. Foliar application, under room conditions at dose-rates of 7 and 10 ml NeemAzal^®-T/S, induced an immature mortality of 32 and 44%, respectively, whereas 7 days post-application, under GH conditions, mortality rates declined to 5 and 7%, respectively. This result indicated rapid dissipation of the active ingredients. However, systemic application by soil drenching resulted in more stable effects under both laboratory and GH conditions. After soil drenching with solutions of 3.0 g NeemAzal^®-U until 7-day, immature mortality declined from 88% for the first day to almost half (45%) by day-7 in the GH, and from 90% on first day to 64% by day-7 under laboratory condition. Similar response trends for B. tabaci were obtained for other parameters such as adult colonisation, egg deposition, and egg hatch. The loss of efficiency of the neem products was clearly related to dose-rate, methods of application, and environment (temperature and UV). Soil application is therefore, a convenient approach to achieve high efficiency and persistence with neem products under the conditions in tropical GH environments for whitefly management.     

Adoption potential of selected organic resources for improving soil fertility in the central highlands of Kenya

Soil fertility decline is the major cause of declining crop yields in the central highlands of Kenya and elsewhere within the African continent. This paper reports a study conducted to assess adoption potential of two leguminous trees, two herbaceous legumes, cattle manure, and Tithonia diversifolia either solely applied or combined with inorganic fertilizer, for replenishing soil fertility in the central highlands of Kenya. The study examined biophysical performance, profitability, feasibility and acceptability, and farmers experiences in managing and testing the inputs. The study was based on a series of studies incorporating both sociological and experimental approaches for two and a half years. Results of on farm trials showed that manure + fertilizer and tithonia + fertilizer treatments increased yields by more than 100% above the control. These treatments were the most profitable having highest net benefits and benefit cost ratios. They were also the most commonly preferred by farmers who used them on larger plots compared to the other inputs. In conclusion, cattle manure and tithonia were found to be the organic materials with the highest adoption potential for soil fertility improvement in this area. Calliandra calothyrsus and Leucaena trichandra, on the other hand, have potential for use as animal fodder. The herbaceous legumes had the least adoption potential due to poor performance recorded on the farms that possibly led to low preference by the farmers. However, issues of sustainable seed production could have played a role. This study recommends some policy issues for enhancing adoption and research issues focusing on exploring strategies for increasing biomass production and use efficiency on farms. Andre Bationo was formerly working for Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility Institute of CIAT (TSBF-CIAT) as the African network Coordinator.     

Native trees and shrubs for the productive rehabilitation of tropical cattle ranching lands

Extensive cattle production currently occupies more than 27% of the rural landscapes in Latin America, and continues to expand. This activity, deeply rooted in the culture and rural economy of the region, requires an urgent transformation if it is to become both more efficient and environmentally friendly. Silvopastoral systems that incorporate native trees and shrubs are instrumental for the productive rehabilitation of cattle production and for biodiversity conservation in agricultural landscapes. We discuss research progress and adoption of intensive silvopastoral systems in Colombia and Mexico. Intensive silvopastoral systems (ISS) are a sustainable form of agroforestry for livestock production that combines fodder shrubs planted at high densities (more than 10,000 plants ha⁻¹), trees and palms, and improved pastures. High stocking and the natural production of milk and meat in these systems are achieved through rotational grazing with electric fencing and a permanent supply of water for the cattle. While milk and meat production and cattle reproduction are enhanced, production costs decline as external inputs are replaced by natural processes related to fertility and biological control. We also discuss the importance of the ISS with native trees for climate change adaptation and mitigation, the barriers for their adoption, and how these have been successfully addressed using payment for environmental services, special credits and technical assistance. Finally, we highlight the need for enhancing landscape connectivity by integrating SPS to conservation corridors with native species to promote biodiversity conservation and other environmental services demanded by society.     

Cutting management ofCalliandra calothyrsus in the wet season to maximize dry season fodder production in the central highlands of Burundi

Calliandra calothyrsus was cut back at monthly intervals during the rainy season between January and May to determine which period of cutting gives the highest quantity and quality of dry matter in August, the peak of the dry season, when a lack of fodder is most acute. In both 1992 and 1993, the highest quantity of dry season production was obtained from the plots that were harvested in February, six months before the driest month. Crude protein content of the dry season fodder was not significantly influenced by the time of harvest in the rainy season. How the fodder produced in the dry season is to be used to satisfy the digestible protein needs of 3.5 goats for a 90-day period in the highlands of Burundi and how the leafy biomass harvested in the rainy season is to be used to support crop production are discussed.Deceased     

Modelling agroforestry systems of cacao (Theobroma cacao) with laurel (Cordia alliodora) and poro (Erythrina poeppigiana) in Costa Rica III. Cycles of organic matter and nutrients

Models for cycles for organic matter and nutrients element (N, P, K, Ca and Mg) are presented for the agroforestry systems of cacao (Theobroma cacao) withCordia alliodora orErythrina poeppigiana in Turrialba, Costa Rica. For the models, system reserves (soil, humus, vegetation divided into leaves, branches, stems, fine roots, fruits) and transference between compartments (production and decomposition of litter residues) inputs (fertilizer, rainfall) and outputs (harvests) of the system are considered. The implications of the models are discussed in detail. Aspects of net primary production in the systems studied are considered. N fixation is calculated on the basis of balances. Analysis of soil water showed high variations that coincided with rainfall patterns and pruning of theE. poeppigiana. For part I see Vol. 4, No. 3, 1986 For part II see this issue Agroforestry Project, CATIE/GTZ (Tropical Agricultural Research and Training Center/Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit), Turrialba, Costa Rica