Effects of creep feeding, zeranol implants and breed type on beef production: II. Reproductive development and fat deposition in heifers

Effects of preweaning creep feeding and zeranol implants on reproductive tract development and udder and s.c. fat deposition were studied in 24 weanling heifers (7 mo of age) with Brahman and Romana Red sires and Angus and Angus x Brown Swiss F1 reciprocal crossbred dams. Creep treatment did not affect (P greater than .19) ovarian weight, ovarian size, uterine horn diameter or follicle number. Heifers from the three creep treatments did not differ (P greater than .25) in udder weight, total lipid or percentage of lipid in the udder. Noncreep-fed (NC) heifers had a greater (P less than .02) number of adipocytes/gram of udder tissue than did the long-term creep-fed (LC) and short-term creep-fed (SC) heifers. The LC heifers had larger udder (166.0 vs 152.7 m) and s.c. adipocytes (166.7 vs 148.8 m) than NC heifers. Heifers implanted with zeranol at 56 and 146 d of age had a greater (P less than .03) uterine horn diameter and heavier (P less than .02) uterine weight than unimplanted heifers. Percentage of lipid in the udder was lower (P less than .02) in heifers implanted with zeranol. Implanted heifers had smaller (P less than .10) s.c. adipocytes than unimplanted heifers. Breed of dam did not effect (P greater than .17) development of the reproductive tract of weanling heifers. Heifers from Angus dams had smaller (P less than .08) udders and less (P less than .10) total fat in the udder than those from F1 dams, and the heifers from F1 dams tended (P less than .12) to have larger udder adipocytes.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Effects of nutrition, sex of calf and breed type on response to zeranol: preweaning growth

An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of breed, sex and plane of nutrition on the growth response to zeranol in Angus and crossbred calves prior to weaning. Eighty-eight heifers and 118 steers received either a high or low plane of nutrition using a first and last grazing technique. Half of the calves in each nutrition group received a zeranol implant (36 mg) at an average age of 3.4 mo. Both zeranol and the higher level of nutrition increased (P less than .001) growth rate prior to weaning (7.4 mo of age). Zeranol did not affect hip height at weaning (P greater than .1), but calves on the higher plane of nutrition were taller (P less than .01) than calves on the lower plane of nutrition. The zeranol x nutrition interaction was not significant (P greater than .1) for growth rate or hip height. Steers grew faster (P less than .01) preweaning and were taller (P less than .01) at weaning than heifers. Crossbred calves gained more rapidly (P less than .001) preweaning and were taller (P less than .001) at weaning than Angus calves were. Neither sex nor breed interacted with zeranol to influence any of the traits examined. Based on these results we conclude that preweaning growth was affected by zeranol and this effect was consistent across sexes, breeds and planes of nutrition tested.     

Effects of zeranol implants on post-castration response in calves

SUMMARY Suckling and yearling calves were surgically castrated and one half of each group implanted with 36 mg zeranol at time of castration. Both treated and control cattle of each class were maintained as a group and evaluated for swelling of the scrotum, inflammation and healing, plasma prostaglandin levels and weight gain. Swelling and inflammation of the scrotum were less in treated suckling calves than in controls at both 7 and 14 d after castration, though this difference was not statistically significant. In yearlings at 7 d after castration, treated cattle had more swelling than controls; however at 14 d, treated cattle had less swelling and inflammation with only one treated yearling having an open scrotal wound versus 6 (P <.03) in the control group. Plasma prostaglandin levels as indicated by plasma malondialdehyde increased from d 0 to 14; however no significant treatment differences were observed for either age group. Suckling calves treated with zeranol gained 9.79 kg more (P <.03) than non-treated calves during the 97 d of trial while the yearlings treated with zeranol gained 16.78 kg more (P <.01) than controls during 102 d. It is concluded from the increased growth and reduced scrotal swelling and inflammation in treated cattle that zeranol implantation could possibly have a beneficial effect in improving the healing process after castration.     

Evaluation of intensive vs extensive systems of beef production and the effect of level of beef cow milk production on postweaning performance

Charolais-sired calves from three groups of beef cows, similar in growth potential and mature size but different in genetic potential for milk production (5.6, 7.7, 9.0 kg/d; low, medium, and high, respectively), were allotted to two beef production systems each year for 3 yr. At weaning, calves in an intensive (Int) system went directly into the feedlot for finishing (236 d); calves in an extensive (Ext) system were wintered on corn residues (195 d), grazed pasture (115 d) and then were finished (122 d). Postweaning effects of increased weaning weight due to increased level of milk were small and not affected by growing-finishing system. Only the steer calves from the low milk-producing cows showed evidence (P less than .01) of compensatory growth postweaning in response to reduced levels of milk during the suckling phase. Cattle from the Ext system were heavier (P less than .01) before (388 vs 233 kg) and after (595 vs 531 kg) the finishing phase than Int system cattle. During finishing, cattle from the Ext system made more rapid gains (1.70 vs 1.36 kg/d) and consumed more feed (12.4 vs 8.5 kg/d, 2.52 vs 2.19% of average BW) but were less efficient (.137 vs .160, gain/feed) than cattle from the Int system (P less than .05). Extensive systems of beef production produced more total kilograms of beef per animal but they were 196 d older at slaughter.     

不同教槽持续时间对窝采食仔猪比例及仔猪断奶前生长性能的影响

本研究共选用54头PIC 1050系母猪及其所产仔猪,以研究不同的教槽持续时间对教槽窝的仔猪教槽料采食量和断奶前生长性能的影响。试验进行时根据胎次和分娩日期将母猪分成2组,并利用随机化完全区组设计法将它们分成3个处理。试验仔猪从出生后第7、14和18天开始教槽,持续时间依次为13、6和2d。利用带有送料斗的旋转式教槽料饲喂器给仔猪供应添加了氧化铬的教槽日粮（含1585大卡代谢能／Ib、1．56％真回肠可消化赖氨酸）,直至断奶时（20日龄）结束。教槽期间仔猪实行自由采食,自由饮水。母猪在整个哺乳期采取自由采食,哺乳期日粮含1586大卡代谢能／Ib和0．97％真回肠可消化赖氨酸。仔猪在出生当日、出生后第7、14、18和20天进行个体称重,以计算总增重和日增重,记录并计算每窝仔猪的每日教槽料采食量。用无菌棉拭分别在仔猪出生后第14、18和20天（第一处理组）、或第18和20天（第二处理组）、或第20天（第三处理组）每天两次对所有仔猪采集粪样。在采样日的任一天中,凡仔猪粪便有一次呈绿色,则该仔猪就被认定为“采食仔猪”。总体而言,采用不同教槽持续时间的试验仔猪,在断奶体重（P〈0．61）、总增重（P〈0．38）和日增重（P〈0．38）上无显著差异。教槽持续13d和6d的仔猪其每窝教槽料总采食量高于教槽持续2d的每窝仔猪教槽料采食量（P〈0．0001）。教槽13d和6d的仔猪在窝教槽料采食量上无显著差异（P〈0．69）。教槽持续13d的仔猪在每窝“采食仔猪”比例上比教槽持续6d和2d的多10％（80％比70％;P〈0．03）;教槽6d和2d的仔猪在窝采食仔猪百分比上无显著差异（P〈0．98）。总之,较长的教槽持续时间并不会影响仔猪断奶前增重和断奶体重,但的确会提高整窝仔猪中的采食仔猪数;然而,在断奶前仅教槽持续2d     

仔猪教槽(一):不同教槽持续时间对窝采食仔猪比例及仔猪断奶前生长性能的影响

本研究共选用54头PIC 1050系母猪及其所产仔猪,以研究不同的教槽持续时间对教槽窝的仔猪教槽料采食量和断奶前生长性能的影响.试验进行时根据胎次和分娩日期将母猪分成2组,并利用随机化完全区组设计法将它们分成3个处理.试验仔猪从出生后第7、14和18天开始教槽,持续时间依次为13、6和2 d.利用带有送料斗的旋转式教槽料饲喂器给仔猪供应添加了氧化铬的教槽日粮(含1 585大卡代谢能/lb、1.56%真回肠可消化赖氨酸),直至断奶时(20日龄)结束.教槽期间仔猪实行自由采食,自由饮水.母猪在整个哺乳期采取自由采食,哺乳期日粮含1 586大卡代谢能/lb和0.97%真回肠可消化赖氨酸.仔猪在出生当日、出生后第7、14、18和20天进行个体称重,以计算总增重和日增重,记录并计算每窝仔猪的每日教槽料采食量.用无菌棉拭分别在仔猪出生后第14、18和20天(第一处理组)、或第18和20天(第二处理组)、或第20天(第三处理组)每天两次对所有仔猪采集粪样.在采样日的任一天中,凡仔猪粪便有一次呈绿色,则该仔猪就被认定为"采食仔猪".总体而言,采用不同教槽持续时间的试验仔猪,在断奶体重(P<0.61)、总增重(P<0.38)和日增重(P<0.38)上无显著差异.教槽持续13 d和6 d的仔猪其每窝教槽料总采食量高于教槽持续2 d的每窝仔猪教槽料采食量(P<0.0001).教槽13 d和6 d的仔猪在窝教槽料采食量上无显著差异(P<0.69).教槽持续13 d的仔猪在每窝"采食仔猪"比例上比教槽持续6 d和2 d的多10%(80%比70%;P<0.03);教槽6 d和2 d的仔猪在窝采食仔猪百分比上无显著差异(P<0.98).总之.较长的教槽持续时间并不会影响仔猪断奶前增重和断奶体重,但的确会提高整窝仔猪中的采食仔猪数;然而,在断奶前仅教槽持续2 d的仔猪窝中具有相时较高的采食仔猪比例(70%).     

Effects of ewe breed and management system on efficiency of lamb production: I. Ewe productivity

Performance of 1/2-Suffolk, 1/2-Rambouillet (Western) and 1/2-Suffolk, 1/4-Rambouillet, 1/4-Finnsheep (1/4-Finn) ewes was compared in three different lamb production systems over 3 yr. System 1 (56 ewes) involved late fall lambing over 84 d. System 2 (51 ewes) involved January and February lambing for 60 d. System 3 (47 ewes) involved March and April lambing for 45 d. Pregnancy rates for yearling ewes were lower in System 1 in yr 1 (50.7% vs 87.4% for Systems 2 and 3) but differed little among systems for older ewes or in remaining years. Average pregnancy rates for 2-yr-old and older ewes were 89.5, 94.0 and 85.7% for Systems 1, 2 and 3, respectively. When the pregnancy rate was adjusted to a 45-d lambing season, means for older ewes were 78.6, 89.5 and 85.7% for System 1, 2 and 3, respectively. Ewe breeds did not differ in their pregnancy rates. Prolificacy (lambs born per ewe lambing) was higher for 1/4-Finn ewes (1.83 +/- .06 vs 1.55 +/- .07) and was higher in System 3 (1.86 +/- .06) than in Systems 1 (1.60 +/- .07) or 2 (1.63 +/- .05). Body weight at breeding in postyearling ewes was less in System 3 (64.3 kg); than in Systems 1 or 2 (average of 73.1 kg). Breeds did not differ in weight at 1 or 2 yr of age, but Western ewes were 2.1 +/- 1.1 kg heavier as 3-yr-olds.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

添加混合油料籽实对奶牛生产性能及CLA的影响

选取年龄、体重、胎次、泌乳期及泌乳量基本一致的荷斯坦奶牛8头,随机分为2组,每组4头牛,进行为期45d的饲养试验。本试验预试期为15d,正试期为30d。试验组为添加整粒胡麻籽与整粒棉籽的混合物,胡麻的添加量为972g/(d·头),棉籽的添加量为2169g/(d·头);对照组不添加任何油料籽实。胡麻与棉籽的添加用以研究添加油料籽实对奶牛生产性能及乳脂脂肪酸组成的影响。研究结果表明:本试验条件下,加入胡麻籽与棉籽的混合物能提高奶牛产奶量,其中非校正产奶量比对照组提高4.7%,4?M产奶量比对照组提高7.3%,但与对照组差异均不显著(P>0.05);乳脂率提高了3.5%,乳脂产量提高了7.4%,与对照组之间差异也不显著(P>0.05);对于乳蛋白率,试验组比对照组提高了2.7%,乳蛋白产量提高了9.0%,但差异不显著(P>0.05);对于乳糖率,试验组比对照组下降了3.7%,乳糖产量比对照组提高了3.6%,差异不显著(P>0.05);乳中总干物质率比对照组提高了0.17%,无脂干物质率比对照组降低了0.96%,但与对照组差异不显著(P>0.05);试验组总的短链脂肪酸比对照组减少了16.8%,总的中链脂肪酸比对照组减少了11.6%,而长链脂肪酸比对照组增加了17.5%。其中试验组短链脂肪酸中的C14比对照组降低了21.5%,与对照组差异显著(P<0.05),其它短链及中链脂肪酸均与对照组差异不显著(P>0.05),长链脂肪酸中的CLA含量比对照!组提高了14.3%,但差异也不显著(P>0.05)。     

饲养模式对科尔沁肉牛育肥性能的影响

[目的]为研究饲养模式对科尔沁肉牛育肥性能的影响,特开展本试验研究,以期为农牧民提供饲养育肥牛的技术指导。[方法]选取体重体型均等的科尔沁肉牛架子牛120头,随机分为试验组1、试验组2与对照组,每组各40头。试验组1根据资料与经验制定为期185 d的饲养方案1,试验组2对养殖户自有饲养模式的饲料量与精粗配比优化后制定为期245 d的饲养方案2,对照组按照养殖户以往模式进行饲养,育肥期结束后称量体重,计算各组日增重数据。[结果]结果显示,试验组2的增重比试验组1与对照组分别提高37.2%与6.4%;试验组2与对照组的饲料利用率显著低于试验组1;经济效益方面试验组2的效益高于试验组1与对照组。结果表明试验组2为较合适的育肥牛饲养模式。[结论]试验证明,制定科学、系统的饲养模式,以合理的育肥时长、饲料摄入及精心的饲养管理,能够提高科尔沁肉牛育肥牛的育肥性能并获得更高的经济效益。     

Effect of zeranol implants in ram and wether lambs on performance traits, carcass characteristics, and subprimal cut yields and distribution.

In two separate 2 x 2 factorial arrangements, 69 male, crossbred lambs were allotted randomly to the following treatments: 1) nonimplanted (NI) rams, 2) implanted (I) rams, 3) NI wethers, and 4) I wethers. In Trial 1, 36 lambs were allotted to treatment groups at birth (n = 9) and I lambs were implanted with 12 mg of zeranol between 1 and 3 d of age and again at weaning (average age of 62 d). Lambs were slaughtered at three time-constant end points of 78, 93, and 107 d on feed postweaning (average age of 155 d). Rams grew faster postweaning, were more efficient in their feed conversion, were heavier at slaughter, and had lower numerical yield grades than did wethers (P less than .05). Implanted lambs tended (P = .08) to grow faster and were (P less than .05) more efficient in their feed conversion than NI lambs. Rams produced heavier (P less than .05) trimmed subprimal shoulders, loins, and legs and had (P less than .05) a higher percentage of their carcass weight in the subprimal shoulder than did wethers. During Trial 2, NI rams (n = 8), I rams (n = 8), NI wethers (n = 8), and I wethers (n = 9) were allotted to treatment groups, and I lambs were implanted at average ages of 14, 55, and 98 d. After weaning, lambs were weighed every 14 d and were slaughtered 7 d after reaching a minimum weight of 50 kg (average age of 148 d).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Effects of breed and different lipid dietary supplements on beef quality

Focus of this study was to evaluate the most suitable breed/crossbred and the appropriate nutritional strategies to increase marbling in beef muscle and to improve its healthy properties, in particular the n‐3 fatty acids content. One hundred and seventy‐six heifers of three crossbreed commonly reared by Emilia‐Romagna farmers: 48 Bleu Belge × Freisian (ITA), 48 Charolais × Aubrac (FRA), and 80 Angus (ANG) were used. Animals of each breed were randomly subdivided in two experimental groups that received two diets, differing for the dietary lipid source. Control group (C) received a basal diet containing protected vegetable fats, whereas treated one (T) received the same basal diet supplemented with 0.9 kg/head/day of extruded flaxseed. After slaughtering, a sample of Longissimus thoracis was collected from each animal for meat quality analysis. Our results demonstrated that, in a shorter fattening period, ANG animals obtained the best dry matter intake, average daily gain and the best fattening scores. ITA and ANG meat presented the highest marbling scores. ANG breed had the highest amount of C18:1, the highest unsaturated/saturated fatty acids ratio and the lowest n‐6/n‐3 ratio. The T animals, independently from breed, showed the highest amount of α‐linolenic acid (ALA). In addition, ANG‐T meat presented the highest ALA content.     

Contribution of breed, cow weight, and milk yield to the traits of heifers and cows in four beef breeding systems.

Measurements were taken on 216 cows with 469 calvings for weight at weaning, condition at weaning, milk yield, milk fat percentage, milk lactose percentage, milk protein percentage, dry period feed intake, lactation period feed intake, total feed intake, first-service pregnancy rate, pregnancy rate, and days to pregnancy. Measurements were also taken on 183 heifers for first-service pregnancy rate, days to pregnancy, and age at first calving. The data spanned the years 1980 to 1988; animals belonged to one of four breeding systems: Hereford, small rotation (Angus, Gelbvieh, Pinzgauer, Tarentaise), large rotation (Charolais, Maine Anjou, Simmental), and Angus-large rotation (cows with Angus sires and large-rotation dams). Maine Anjou-sired cows had lower annual feed intake and Charolais-sired heifers lower first-service pregnancy rate than the other large-rotation breeds. Gelbvieh-sired cows had lower milk lactose and protein percentages than the other small-rotation breeds. Within breeding system neither cow weight nor milk yield were significantly associated with reproductive traits of cows. No differences among breeding systems in associations between feed intakes and weights or milk yields were detected.     

Influence of zeranol and breed on growth, composition of gain, and plasma hormone concentrations

Seven Angus and six Brangus steers averaging 225 and 245 kg, respectively, were assigned randomly to zeranol (36 mg) implant (I) and no implant (NI) treatments. Steers had ad libitum access to a corn silage diet plus .68 kg of a soybean meal-based supplement fed daily. Steers were bled via jugular catheters on d 0, 28, 56, and 84 at 15-min intervals for 4 h before and 4 h after feeding. Concentrations of growth hormone (GH), insulin (INS), triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4), and glucose were determined. Whole-body protein and fat contents were monitored. A breed x I interaction (for d 56 to 84 and d 0 to 84) was observed for ADG (P less than .05 and P less than .07, respectively), feed conversion (P less than .05 and P less than .07, respectively), and protein deposition (for d 0 to 29 and d 0 to 84; P less than .07 and P less than .05, respectively). These interactions were attributed to a greater response to I by Angus than by Brangus steers. A feeding x period interaction (P less than .10) was observed for mean GH concentration, and INS, T4, and T3 concentrations were higher (P less than .05) during the 4-h postfeeding period than during the 4-h prefeeding period. The implant increased (P less than .08) mean GH concentration but did not alter the frequency, duration, or amplitude of plasma GH peaks. Steers that were implanted had lower (P less than .05) plasma T3. Brangus steers had lower (P less than .05) plasma glucose, T3, and T4 concentrations than Angus steers. Results indicate that growth factors beyond those measured are responsible for the anabolic response to zeranol.     

小黑麦干草对羔羊生产性能及采食行为的影响

为探究小黑麦(×Triticale Wittmack)干草对舍饲羔羊生产性能和采食行为的影响,本研究选用18只舍饲湖羊公羔,随机分为对照组、试验Ⅰ组和Ⅱ组,每组6只;对照组饲喂基础日粮,试验Ⅰ组和Ⅱ组在基础日粮中分别用10%、20%的小黑麦干草等量替代粗料。结果表明:Ⅰ组试验羊的平均日增重为189.72 g,显著高于对照组和Ⅱ组(P <0.05);试验羊采食量随小黑麦干草添加比例的增加而降低,Ⅱ组采食量显著低于Ⅰ组和对照组(P <0.05),采食时长极显著高于Ⅰ组和对照组(P <0.01);Ⅰ组试验羊排泄次数显著高于对照组(P <0.05),与Ⅱ组无显著差异(P> 0.05);Ⅰ组试验羊反刍周期、反刍时间、反刍食团数和食团咀嚼总次数都极显著高于Ⅱ组(P <0.01)。综上可知,小黑麦干草作为粗饲料在羔羊日粮中适宜添加比例为10%,这为小黑麦干草饲料化开发利用提供了理论基础。     

Effect of breed of sire,breed of dam,pasture program and of their interactions on preweaning performance of crossbred beef calves

Angus (A), Hereford (H), Jersey (J), Simmental (S) and Brahman (B) bulls (202), were mated to A and H cows (855 cow-years) to produce F₁ calves. Cows were randomly assigned within age and breed to two pasture programs. The two pasture programs were expected to differ in particular with respect to the energy level offered to the cows during winter (tall fescue hay versus corn silage). Effects of genotypes, pasture program and of their interactions on preweaning traits were studied. Differences (P< 0.05) between pasture programs were found only for frame and muscle scores. Marginal means for A dams were higher (P<0.05) than those for H cows for all traits, except birth weight. Calves sired by B bulls were heavier (P<0.01) at birth than those sired by S, A and H, and J bulls. For the other traits, S-sired calves tended to have the largest estimated means, followed by calves of B bulls, then by the average of calves sired by A and H bulls and finally by J-sired offspring. Significant (P< 0.05) breed of sire × breed of dam interactions involved only extreme sire breeds. All hypotheses involving pasture program × breed of sire interactions were not significant. Muscle score was the only trait affected (P< 0.05) by a pasture × breed of dam interaction. However, its effect was only magnitudinal. Birth weight was the only trait not affected at all by the pasture program × breed of sire × breed of dam interaction. In the other traits, significant interactions reflected changes in the magnitude of the response rather than in the ranking of genotypes across pasture programs.     

Effects of feeding fatty acid calcium and the interaction of forage quality on production performance and biochemical indexes in early lactation cow

Multiparous early lactation Holstein cows (n = 16) were used in a randomized complete block design to determine the effects of feeding fatty acid calcium and the interaction of forage quality on production performance and biochemical indexes in early lactation cow. Treatments were as follows: (i) feeding low‐quality forage without supplying fatty acid calcium (Diet A), (ii) feeding low‐quality forage with supplying 400 g fatty acid calcium (Diet B), (iii) feeding high‐quality forage without supplying fatty acid calcium (Diet C) and (iv) feeding high‐quality forage with supplying 400 g fatty acid calcium. This experiment consisted 30 days. The milk and blood samples were collected in the last day of the trail. Intakes were recorded in the last 2 days of the trail. Supplementation of fatty acid calcium decreased significantly dry matter intake (DMI) (p < 0.01). Addition fatty acid calcium decreased milk protein percentage (p < 0.01) and milk SNF percentage (p < 0.01), but increased MUN (p < 0.05). Supplemented fatty acid decreased concentration of blood BHBA (p < 0.05), but increased TG, NEFA, glucagon, GLP‐1, CCK, leptin, ApoA‐IV, serotonin and MSH concentration in blood, the CCK concentration and feed intake showed a significant negative correlation (p < 0.05).     

Comparison of two- and three-way rotational crossing, beef x beef and beef x Brown Swiss composite breed production: postweaning growth and carcass traits

Data collected from steer and bull progeny, fed to a constant final feedlot weight over 11 yr, were used to estimate heterosis in post-weaning feedlot growth and carcass traits in two-way and three-way rotational crossing systems and a breed composite from crossing Hereford, Angus and Charolais breeds. Steer and bull progeny from matings of beef x Brown Swiss-cross sires and dams also were compared with the straight beef breeds and beef crosses. Growth traits evaluated were initial weight on test, 112-d weight, total feedlot average daily gain and total days from initial to final weight. Carcass traits included hot carcass weight, dressing percentage, rib eye area, 12th-rib fat thickness, kidney, pelvic and heart fat, yield grade and marbling score. Heterosis estimates for calves of all crossing systems were significant for initial and 112-d weight and for saving of days in the feedlot, but not for average daily feedlot gain. Heterosis estimates were small and nonsignificant for most carcass traits except for fat traits in specific crosses. Males from Hereford and Angus sires mated to Angus x Hereford dams had higher (P less than .10) backfat than did the parental average. Male progeny from Charolais ranked higher (P less than .10 to P less than .01) than calves from Hereford and Angus sires for most growth traits. Progeny from Charolais sires were more desirable (P less than .10 to P less than .01) for traits related to cutability, but they had less (P less than .05 to P less than .01) marbling than calves of Angus sires.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)