Human enteric viruses in sewage and their discharge into the ocean

Twenty-four hourly as well as 12 two-hour composite samples of Honolulu's untreated sewage which is discharged into the ocean were assayed for human enteric viruses. Both sampling methods yielded similar results with peaks of virus discharge occurring between 11 to 14 h and again between 20 to 23 h. Over a 24 h period, 8.5 × 10¹⁰ PFU of virus based on the 24 hourly samples and 7.5 x 10¹⁰ PFU based on the 12 two-hour composite samples were determined to be discharged into the ocean via the sewage ocean outfall. Four-hour composite samples of sewage from two selected communities were also analyzed for human enteric viruses. Higher concentrations of viruses were consistently recovered from the sewage draining Kuhio Park Terrace community than from Nuuanu community and support the hypothesis that a community (Kuhio Park Terrace) characterized by a relatively high percentage of children, high density and low socio-economic conditions will excrete higher amounts of enteric viruses than a community (Nuuanu) with contrasting characteristics.     

Recycling of water for irrigation: Persistence of enteroviruses in sewage effluent and natural waters receiving the effluent

A virological analyses of a sewage treatment plant which provided chlorinated, activated sludge treated sewage effluent to irrigate a complete two-year crop of sugarcane was made. The raw, the activated sludge treated and the chlorinated sewage effluent, as well as streams and a harbor receiving sewage effluents were concentrated by either the polymer two-phase, PE-60, Al(OH)₃, protamine sulfate, or cellulose membrane method and assayed for human enteric viruses. Viruses were recovered from 100% (11/11) of the raw sewages tested at concentrations ranging from 27 to 19 000 PFU l^?1 while 76% (13/17) of the activated sludge treated effluent was positive at concentrations ranging from 7 to 5222 PFU l^?1. After chlorination, 58% (31/53) of the samples was positive for virus at concentrations ranging from 2 to 750 PFU l^?1. Human enteroviruses were also isolated from shallow flowing streams at distances up to 3 mi (5 km) from the closest known sewage effluent discharge point and from a harbor approximately 0.5 mi (0.8 km) from the point of sewage discharge entering the harbor. The viruses most often isolated were echovirus 7, coxsackievirus B-4, B-5 and poliovirus 1, 2, and 3. These results indicate that although activated sludge treatment plus chlorination remove approximately 90% of the virus from the raw sewage, the final treated sewage effluent, which is normally discharged into a stream and in this experimental study to irrigate sugarcane, still contains a significant concentration of infectious viruses. Furthermore, the recovery of enteroviruses from waterways at points distant from the sewage treatment plants indicates that sewage-borne viruses persist in natural water environment. The significance of enteric viruses in waters accessible to the public and used for irrigation purposes remains to be determined.     

滨岸排污口对潮滩沉积物中重金属的影响研究

通过对排污口附近及对照点的潮滩沉积物中重金属Zn ,Cu ,Cr和Pb的含量分析发现:各采样点沉积物中的重金属含量均高于环境背景值,平均含量约为环境背景值的2～3倍,排污口附近潮滩沉积物中重金属的含量明显高于对照点潮滩沉积物中的含量;各采样点的柱状沉积物中重金属的含量随深度的变化呈现出一定的变化规律;在垃圾填埋场附近高中低潮滩由于距离排污口的远近不同,表层沉积物中重金属的含量依次降低;对各采样点沉积物中重金属含量的相关性分析发现各点沉积物中累积的重金属的来源有所不同:在排污口附近潮滩的沉积物中重金属主要来源于排污口排放的污水,而对照点朝阳农场潮滩沉积物中重金属主要来源于自然的本底输入或海水外源输入     

Coliforms,fecal coliforms,and fecal streptococci as indicators of water pollution

The presence and survival of coliforms, fecal coliforms, and fecal streptococci were studied in sewage treatment plants, heavily polluted rivers, a lake, and other drinking water sources. In all cases the fecal streptococci were generally more resistant to the natural water environment and to purification processes than the other indicator organisms and, at points distant from the original source of pollution were often the only indicators of the fecal nature of the pollution. In two of the systems studied the survival of the fecal streptococci paralleled the survival of enteric viruses better than the coliforms. The fecal streptococci may thus in certain cases provide a better estimate of the probable virus content in lightly contaminated water than the other two indicators.     

Fecal coliform densities in a Western watershed

This paper describes the areal distribution of fecal coliform densities within the stream system of the South Platte River basin in Colorado. Low densities, e.g., 0 to 99 fecal coliforms per 100 ml, were found in mountain streams, while higher densities, e.g., 10000 to 100000 and above were found in plains streams. About 49 % of the plains stations and 3 % of the mountain stations were not in compliance with the Colorado secondary contact recreation standard of 2000 fecal coliforms per 100 ml. The higher fecal coliform densities were associated with discharges from wastewater treatment plants. This is significant from a public health standpoint since the tainted waters are spread throughout the South Platte basin to irrigated lands via streams, canals, and reservoirs. Because of current federal and state policy encouraging land treatment and reuse, such practice should be reviewed with respect to compliance with proposed fecal coliform standards, and whether such standards should be adopted.     

Tiber River Quality in the Stretch of a Sewage Treatment Plant: Effects of River Water or Disinfectants to Daphnia and Structure of Benthic Macroinvertebrates Community

The evaluation of Tiber River quality, in a stretch including a sewage treatment plant, has been carried out by the contemporary evaluation of water effect on Daphnia and benthic macroinvertebrates community structure. To achieve a good status of a river water by the end of 2015, as provided in the Water Framework Directive (WFD) 2000/60/EC, is necessary to know the quality starting point. To this end, several endpoints are expected by the WFD, including Daphnia toxicity test and macroinvertebrate community analysis. River water sampling was conducted in the four seasons, from upstream to downstream a sewage treatment plant. I endpoint. At the outfall of the sewage treatment plant, river water showed very high acute toxicity to Daphnia only in summer; some toxic effect can be found also upstream in spring. Results at the outfall were consistent with the hypothesis that disinfectants, mainly used in summer to treat discharging waters, are responsible of river water acute toxicity: Daphnia tests with each disinfectant (NaClO, PAA, ClO₂) showed high toxicity. River waters were also utilized in Daphnia reproduction tests. Samples at the outfall (excluding the summer one, undoubtedly toxic) caused slight reduction in survival and fecundity. Disinfectants were also checked in reproduction tests. Still at NOEC_24h, they caused a significant toxicity on both death rate and reproduction. II endpoint. Macroinvertebrate benthic community composition was evaluated upstream and downstream the sewage treatment plant, on these data Extended Biotic Index (EBI), was determined to get a score as quality class. A reduction of water quality score was found downstream the plant, one season delayed (autumn) respect the acute test on Daphnia. Effect of disinfectant discharge, river dilution capability on a short spatial scale and use of different endpoints are discussed in term of river stretch quality.     

Enteric viruses in a wastewater treatment plant in Rome

Over the course of a year a series of samples were taken from a wastewater treatment plant handling domestic sewage at each stages of the process, to detect the presence of enteric viral and classical bacterial indicators, and physicochemical parameters. The viruses were isolated on BGM cell cultures and counted according to the Most Probable Number method. The values of enteric viruses varied from 10² to 10⁴/L in raw sewage and from 10⁰ to 10³ in final effluent. The efficiency of the plant at each stages during processing was evaluated. The parameters analysed show a systematic reduction of values between input and output, with average bacteriological reductions of 88% (fecal streptococci), 93% (fecal coliforms) and 94% (total coliforms), viral load reduced by 0–99%. COD and suspended solids showed a reduction of 61 % and 71% respectively. The 40% of isolated viruses were submitted to identification procedures using molecular techniques and pools of antisera. The viral types identified were enteroviruses (poliovirus and coxsackievirus B) and reoviruses. Viruses appear less easily removed than classical bacterial indicators. Reoviruses were removed less efficiently than enteroviruses.     

Indicator bacteria concentrations as affected by hydrologic variables in the Apalachicola river,Florida

Concentrations of fecal coliform and fecal Streptococcus bacteria were monitored in the Apalachicola River, Florida, at various river stages. Bacteria transported by the river may eventually be assimilated by estuarine filter feeders, including shellfish. Sources along the river contributed to relatively high coliform and coliform: Streptococcus ratios at a few sites upstream, but there was a general decreasing trend in coliform numbers in a downstream direction. The data suggested that coliform densities depend not only on discharge, but also on factors such as whether the river stage is rising or falling, whether the flood is in an early or late phase, and the volume of the current peak relative to earlier peaks. A regression model indicated that 53 % of fecal coliform variability could be accounted for by river discharge and 32% could be accounted for by other hydrologic characteristics of the flood.     

Fecal contamination of Finnish fresh waters in 1962–1984

We investigated fecal contamination of Finnish lakes and rivers on the basis of 132 476 observations of total coliform bacteria (TC), thermotolerant coliform bacteria (ThC) and fecal streptococci (FS) enumerated in a nationwide monitoring programme during the period 1962–1984. The number of analyses of TC was 19 672, of ThC 16 456 and of FS 96 348. The waters were classified into three groups, influenced mainly by municipal wastewaters, industrial wastewaters or diffuse loading. Annual median bacterial concentrations were used for presenting the trends. All the concentrations decreased until about 1976, except TC concentrations in the industrialized and diffuse load areas. Since 1976 the concentrations decreased more slowly or occasionally even increased, especially those of TC. In the whole data the dynamics of bacterial loads (CFU s^?1) were similar to those of annual median bacterial concentrations. The most probable explanations for the declining bacterial concentrations are increase in the human population served by wastewater treatment plants, improved sewage treatment processes, decreased wastewater volumes of the forest industry and decrease in the number of cattle. The monitoring programme continues.     

Virus Transport Experiments in a Sandy Aquifer

The occurrence of human enteric viruses in ground water has been well documented in the literature. Bacteriophages such as MS-2 and PRD1 have properties similar to pathogenic human viruses suggesting that bacteriophages can be used as proxies for virus transport. The objective of this study is to investigate a “worst case scenario” for virus transport in a ground water aquifer, i.e., sand and gravel aquifer under a forced-gradient, by using bacteriophages. Field studies have been conducted to trace large-scale (34 m) and small-scale (10 m) virus transport under natural- and forced-gradients through a sand and gravel aquifer at a ground water research site at the Texas A&M University. Virus transport was monitored under natural and forced-gradient conditions using MS-2 and PRD-1 as virus tracers and bromide as a conservative tracer. Results indicate virus and bromide transport to down-gradient monitoring wells in both the large- and small-scale field tests. During the tests conducted, MS-2 transport appears to exhibit little longitudinal dispersion, showing a narrow peak at the well nest 34 m down-gradient in 13 days which is 20 days before the bromide breakthroughs, indicating that bacteriophage transport through the aquifer was mainly by advective flow. Differences in tracer transport can be attributed to the heterogeneity of the sand and gravel aquifer at the site, different injection methods, different sampling methods, and different tracer properties. Heterogeneity of the aquifer would cause virus transport through preferential flow paths.     

Pollution of ground water by nutrients and fecal coliforms from lakeshore septic tank systems

The fate of wastewater effluents discharged from 17 septic tank disposal systems located near the shores of eight lakes in northeastern and eastern New York State was investigated. Fecal coliforms chloride, conductivity, dissolved 0₂, phosphate and various forms of N in ground water samples were analyzed. Of 46 ground water samples, 23 were found to be highly contaminated and 16 slightly contaminated. Only 7 were not contaminated by the wastewater effluent. Seventeen of the 23 highly contaminated samples were collected within 30.5 m of the discharge point of the septic systems. Eleven of these were collected from ground water less than 122 cm below ground level. Eight of the 16 slightly contaminated samples and 3 of the 7 noncontaminated samples were collected at a distance greater than 30.5 m. The depth to the ground water from ground surface and the distance of the ground water from the discharge point of the sewage system are main factors influencing pattern and severity of ground water contamination. This survey indicated that significant nutrient and fecal coliform contamination of lakeshore ground waters was occurring.

     

Effect of Anaerobic Digestion and Application Method on the Presence and Survivability of <Emphasis Type="Italic">E. coli</Emphasis> and Fecal Coliforms in Dairy Waste Applied to Soil

Animal wastes are commonly used in a sustainable manner to fertilize crops. However, manures contain numerous pathogenic bacteria that can impact animal and human health. Treatment of animal waste by anaerobic digestion has the potential to reduce pathogen loading to land. This study was conducted to determine the fate of bacteria applied in raw and anaerobically digested dairy slurries that were broadcast and subsurface applied in a field of forage grasses. Digested slurry had significantly fewer indicator bacteria, Escherichia coli and fecal coliform at time of application. Anaerobic digestion did not increase the survivability of indicator bacteria. Waste treatment and application method did not affect the rate of bacteria die-off. There were fewer E. coli and fecal coliform at the end of each trial in the soils that received digested slurry. Anaerobic digestion of dairy waste has the potential to reduce pathogenic bacteria loading to cropland.     

The use of clams as bioindicator of fecal pollution in seawater

The coastal waters of Kuwait are widely used for bathing during the long summer season. In order to assess the water quality along the beaches, a new approach was developed. It involves the use of clam, Circenita callipyga, as a bioindicator for seawater pollution by fecal coliform bacteria (FC), antibotic resistant fecal coliform (ABR-FC) and Salmonella spp. These organisms were detected in clam and water samples and the efficiency of clam in concentrating Salmonella was confirmed. The number of FC and ABR-FC in clam and water samples were compared and a higher number was detected in clams than in water. Five isolates of Salmonella from clams were also multidrug resistant. The data suggests that clam can be used as a bioindicator of seawater pollution and is preferable to direct testing of water. The resistance to antibiotics in E. coli isolated from water and clams collected at the same time and site was of similar pattern and was determined by R-plasmid.     

Assessment of the bacteriological quality of rural groundwater supplies in Northern West Virginia

A bacteriological survey was performed on 155 untreated, individual, rural groundwater supplies which included drilled wells, dug wells, and springs. Of these, 105 exceeded the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) maximum contaminant level of one total coliform per 100 mL. Repeat sampling for 87 of the unacceptable 105 supplies indicated that 76 again exceeded the EPA standard limit. Masked coliforms were detected through confirmation tests in 11 water supplies that exhibited excessive noncoliform colonies (> 50 CFUs/membrane filter). Also, 48% of the supplies contained fecal coliforms and 62% contained fecal streptococci. Bacterial densities were related to the type of water supply with drilled wells containing fewer total coliforms, fecal coliforms, fecal streptococci, and heterotrophic plate count bacteria than dug wells or springs. Water supplies that were shallower, older, and lacking adequate casing characteristically were more heavily contaminated with sanitary indicator bacteria than supplies that were deeper, of more recent construction, and with sufficient casing.     

Comparison of Fecal Coliform Before and After Wastewater Treatment Facility: a Case Study near a Coastal Town in the Southeastern USA

A central wastewater treatment facility was built in 1997 for the town of Suwannee that eliminated 850 inadequately operating on-site sewage treatment and disposal systems. During a study in 1989?C1990, Salmonella were detected in Suwannee River water samples upstream and downstream of the town of Suwannee. This study presents the findings of fecal coliform distribution between the years 1996 and 2009 in canals and the main stem of Suwannee River near the town of Suwannee, a coastal area in southeastern USA. Fecal coliforms were measured and assessed to evaluate the water quality before and after the installation of the central wastewater treatment facility. In the canals nearby the town of Suwannee, significant differences in fecal coliform concentrations were detected between the samples collected before and after the operation of the central wastewater treatment facility. Average fecal coliform of 537 most probable number (MPN)/100?ml in the canals in 1996 was reduced to 218?MPN/100?ml after the operation of wastewater treatment facility. The fecal coliform levels in canals decreased significantly in the last 13?years. Even though the average fecal coliform levels in the river was reduced from 170 to 86?MPN/100?ml before and after the installation of the wastewater treatment facility, respectively, the difference was not statistically significant.     

微核技术在新立河水质污染监测中的应用

为了解滨城区新立河水质的污染状况,选取水库出水闸、西谢庄桥、黄河2路桥、黄河5路桥、黄河8路桥、黄河12路桥、黄河15路桥及北外环路桥8个河段处为取样点,利用蚕豆根尖细胞微核技术对各采样点进行了生物监测。调查了各河段样点的排污口数及水质表观特征,综合评价了新立河水质的污染情况。结果表明,在污染最严重的黄河5路桥至黄河15桥河段污染指数均3.50,该河段污染来源主要来自生活污水及工业废水,排污口数达调查河段的58.54%。排放污水为黑色,带有明显恶臭。利用蚕豆根尖细胞微核技术监测结果与现场调查的水质表观污染状况基本吻合。综合分析表明,新立河水质污染较严重,且有导致生物染色体分裂异常现象,需加大力度进行治理。     

MAN-MADE IMPACT ON THE GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE NILE DELTA LAKES. A STUDY OF METALS CONCENTRATIONS IN SEDIMENTS

Forty two sediment samples were collected from four River Nile northern delta lakes (Mariut, Edku, Burullus and Manzalah) to asses the man-made impact on their environment during the last 20 years. Due to the continuous discharge of agricultural, industrial and sewage waste waters to these lakes, significant variations in the sediment's nature took place, with fine fractions dominating opposite to the outflowing area of the main drains. Organic carbon was elevated at the southern regions, reaching 10.5 ± 4.5% in lake Mariut. Meanwhile, carbonate increased reaching 90% for samples collected at the lake-sea connection areas. The 0.5 N HCl extractable metals indicated enriched levels of different metals at sites affected by sewage and industrial discharge. This fraction constituted 75 and 81% of the total metals in Lakes Mariut and Manzalah, respectively. Extractable Cd for Lakes Mariut and Manzalah constituted 51 and 53%, respectively, while Pb formed 59% of the total digestable metal in Lake Manzalah. Total metals concentrations especially Cd and Pb were elevated 8 to 70 times than those observed in the same lakes 25 years ago. The conversion of the untreated sewage discharge of Alexandria city to Lake Mariut and significant portion of Cairo sewage to Lake Manzalah during the past 10 years lead to the appearance of elevated levels of contaminants in both lakes. Agricultural discharge showed less impact on Lakes Edku and Burullus. Cluster analysis revealed associations between stations located under same types of stress while the correspondence factor analysis displayed that metals distribution pattern in the Nile delta lakes are governed by organic carbon as well as fine grained size fraction distribution.     

Development of Regression-Based Models to Predict Fecal Bacteria Numbers at Select Sites within the Illinois River Watershed, Arkansas and Oklahoma, USA

The Illinois River Watershed is a multi-facet basin with ecological and economic importance to its local stakeholders in northwest Arkansas and northeast Oklahoma, USA. The numbers, transport and sources of fecal bacteria in streams was identified as a research priority of the USDA NRI Water and Watershed Program in 2006, and the objective of this study was to evaluate the relation between fecal bacteria and other measured physicochemical parameters in water samples collected from selected sites throughout the Illinois River Watershed. An existing database (i.e., National Water Information Systems, NWIS) from the US Geological Survey (USGS) was used in this project. The data obtained includes discharge, pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, Escherichia coli (E. coli), fecal coliform, and fecal streptococci among several other physic-chemical parameters. A synthetic model, based on multi-regression analysis, was developed to predict fecal bacteria numbers at these selected sites based on available USGS NWIS data, and the multiple regressions were significant at almost every site for all three bacteria groups. However, the physicochemical parameters used in the equations were very different across sites and fecal bacteria groups, suggesting that the development of such predictive models is site and bacteria group specific even within one watershed.     

Influence of thermal power station effluents on hydrobiology of seawater

The hydrobiological parameters of the waters in the vicinity of ash slurry and cooling water outfall from Ennore Thermal Power Station located on the shore of Bay of Bengal, Madras were determined. In the outfall site, an increase in mean temperature (35 °C), salinity (3.5%), nitrite ? N (25 μg L^?1), ammonia ? N (185 μg L^?1), phosphate ? P (1 mg L^?1), silicate ? SiO₂ (1.65 mg L^?1), chlorophyll a (21.1 mg m^?3), respiration (76% of gross production), suspended solids (3.84 g L^?1), BOD (3.65 mg O₂) and decrease in pH (8.1), dissolved oxygen (DO) (5.5 mg L^?1), nitrate ? N (15 jig L^?1), gross production (16.6 Mg C m^?3 hr^?1) were recorded. Phaeopigment and respiration were inversely related with chlorophyll a and net productivity, respectively. Microbial biomass varied spatially, but was generally low (114.5 jig L^?1), at the outfall site. The hydrobiological characteristics of water with high turbidity indicate that the ash slurry and coolant water play a crucial role in a localized area resulting in environmental disturbance. The effect was profoundly influenced by an initial dilution, dispersion, wave mixing and current direction. The ecological relationships between these parameters and their implications in coastal pollution are discussed.     

Fecal coliform and E. coli estimates,tip of the iceberg

Pure cultures of E. coli, Klebsiella and Enterobacter, obtained from hospital patients and from natural waters were tested for their growth patterns by spread plate and membrane filtration procedures at the following temperatures; 35°, 41.5°, 43°, 44.5°, and 35°C for 4 h followed by 18 h at 44.5°C. Results indicated that 44.5°C incubation produces the lowest population estimate and that the application of the membrane filtration technique also reduced the potential population. Three water samples collected during June, August and November were tested for fecal coliform and E. coli populations, with 11 different media (broth and agar) and incubation temperatures of 35°, 41.5°, 43°, 44.5°, and 35°C for 4 h followed by 18 h at 44.5°C. During the study, isolates were collected from all positive MPN tubes at each temperature and from each MF medium-temperature regime, 24 to 50 isolates were collected. From the isolate data corrected coliform (oxidase negative), fecal coliform and E. coli population estimates were made. A sample of feces was diluted in lake water and maintained at 20°C for 56 days. Samples were collected at various times and tested for fecal coliform densities using five media and the same temperature regime as for the lake water samples. Data from these studies indicate that, depending on the age of the population being measured, the temperature of the water sample, and the temperature-media-procedure combination used, fecal coliform and E. coli population estimate techniques measure from 5 to 100% of the potential population.