Hydroxycinnamic acids and ferulic acid dehydrodimers in barley and processed barley

Hydroxycinnamic acid content and ferulic acid dehydrodimer content were determined in 11 barley varieties after alkaline hydrolysis. Ferulic acid (FA) was the most abundant hydroxycinnamate with concentrations ranging from 359 to 624 microg/g dry weight. p-Coumaric acid (PCA) levels ranged from 79 to 260 microg/g dry weight, and caffeic acid was present at concentrations of <19 microg/g dry weight. Among the ferulic acid dehydrodimers that were identified, 8-O-4'-diFA was the most abundant (73-118 microg/g dry weight), followed by 5,5'-diFA (26-47 microg/g dry weight), the 8,5'-diFA benzofuran form (22-45 microg/g dry weight), and the 8,5'-diFA open form (10-23 microg/g dry weight). Significant variations (p < 0.05) among the different barley varieties were observed for all the compounds that were quantified. Barley grains were mechanically fractionated into three fractions: F1, fraction consisting mainly of the husk and outer layers; F2, intermediate fraction; and F3, fraction consisting mainly of the endosperm. Fraction F1 contained the highest concentration for ferulic acid (from 77.7 to 82.3% of the total amount in barley grain), p-coumaric acid (from 78.0 to 86.3%), and ferulic acid dehydrodimers (from 79.2 to 86.8%). Lower contents were found in fraction F2, whereas fraction F3 exhibited the lowest percentages (from 1.2 to 1.9% for ferulic acid, from 0.9 to 1.7% for p-coumaric acid, and <0.02% for ferulic acid dehydrodimers). The solid barley residue from the brewing process (brewer's spent grain) was approximately 5-fold richer in ferulic acid, p-coumaric acid, and ferulic acid dehydrodimers than barley grains.     

Cardinal temperatures for seed germination of wild barley,barley grass and hoary cress

It is necessary to understand the effects of environmental conditions, especially temperature, on weed seed germination patterns, in order to make comprehensive and effective weed management decisions. The effect of cardinal temperature (0°C, 5°C, 10°C, 15°C, 20°C, 25°C, 30°C, 35°C and 40°C) on the germination pattern of three noxious weeds, such as wild barley (Hordeum spontaneum Koch.), barley grass (H. murinum L.) and hoary cress (Cardaria draba L.) in wheat fields of Iran, was studied in three separate experiments. The experiments were conducted based on completely randomized design (CRD) with four replications. The result showed that the germination of all three species started at low temperatures and there was no significant difference in germination percentage (GP) at lower temperatures. About 50% of the weed population germinated within a short period when using a dent-like model indicating the high ability of these weeds to compete for space and resources. Segmented and dent-like models were used to evaluate the cardinal temperatures. The results showed that dent-like model was the preferred model to evaluate germination rate in relation to variable temperatures in hoary cress, while the segmented model was better in wild barley. However, there was no significant difference between the two models for barley grass. The results of this study showed that mechanical, cultural (pre-planting irrigation) and chemical practices could be more useful and effective at 10–30°C.     

The Spanish barley core collection

Spanish barleys constitute a germplasm group of particular interest for breeding purposes, as Spain has been proposed as a possible centre of origin of the crop. The Spanish National Germplasm Bank (Banco Nacional de Germoplasma, BNG), holds a collection of about 2000 barley accessions, mostly landraces collected in Spain prior to extensive introduction of modern varieties. The objective of this work is to create a core collection of barleys representative of old barley genotypes grown in Spain. The core collection will be constituted by three groups of germplasm: successful old varieties (15); entries in common with previously existing barley core collections (15); and 2-row (8) and 6-row (122) entries from the BNG, for a total of 160 entries. Entries were allocated by stratified sampling in agro-ecological uniform zones of barley cultivation in Spain. Classification of agro-ecological regions for barley was based on historical yield records for Spanish provinces. The number of entries for each region was determined in proportion to the logarithm of historical barley acreage. Final choice of accessions within provinces tried to maximize the diversity and avoid duplications by looking at passport data, and to agronomic evaluation data available for a group of about 900 accessions.     

Nitrogen management for malting barley

Abstract

Malting barley is a specialized agricultural crop in which high yields and quality are production objectives. We evaluated the effects of different N rates on barley yields and selected malting quality parameters grown on irrigated silt loam soils (Xerollic calciorthids). Maximum barley yields having acceptable malting quality parameters were obtained when the preplant soil NO₃‐N plus fertilizer N was between 100 to 120 kg N/ha. About 33 kg N/ha was taken up by the plants from the mineralization of soil organic N. Higher available N levels decreased malting quality parameters below acceptable levels. Germination percentage was not changed by the different N rates.     

Osmotic stress and silicon act additively in enhancing pathogen resistance in barley against barley powdery mildew

Osmotic stress as well as silicon (Si) improve the resistance of barley (Hordeum vulgare cv. Ingrid) against barley powdery mildew (Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei Speer). Nothing is known about interactions, particularly whether Si is necessary for pathogen resistance induced by osmotic stress. In this paper, we show that Si nutrition was not necessary for osmotic‐stress‐induced pathogen resistance. Si‐mediated resistance could, however, be enhanced by osmotic stress and vice versa. Even at maximum Si‐mediated resistance, further enhancement of pathogen resistance by osmotic stress was possible. The fungus was controlled by the formation of effective papillae in both treatments. The combined effect of Si and osmotic stress was as strong as the calculated addition of the Si and the osmotic‐stress effect. Our data clearly show that the effect of osmotic stress and Si is not competitive but additive. A synergistic action of both treatments cannot be supported by our data. It is assumed that the basal pathogen resistance of barley is enhanced by Si due to strengthening of papillae in addition to the increased formation of effective papillae induced by osmotic stress. Therefore, the addition of Si increases pathogen resistance equally at all investigated NaCl concentrations. A function of Si in pathogen defense exceeding the strengthening of papillae is not supported by our data.     

Germanium accumulation and toxicity in barley

The accumulation of germanium (Ge) by barley (Hordeum vulgare cv. ‘Arivat') grown at various Ge and pH levels was investigated because Ge is an industrially important metal and bioaccumulation of Ge is a potentially useful means of concentrating this trace metal. Six‐day‐old barley seedlings were grown in perlite and nutrient solution adjusted to a pH of 4.5, 6.0, or 7.5 supplemented with 20, 40,60, or 80 μM Ge for seven days. The plants were divided into roots and shoots after harvesting; the dry weight and Ge content of the individual organs were measured, as was the peroxidase activity in the distal 1 cm of the primary leaves. Barley seedlings accumulated Ge in the roots and shoots; the shoots accumulated Ge linearly as medium Ge concentration increased. The dry weight of the organs was not affected, although necrosis was observed in the primary leaves of the seedlings treated with Ge concentrations greater than 20μM. Peroxidase activity in the primary leaves also increased as the Ge levels in the medium increased which indicated that elevated levels of Ge stimulated leaf senescence. These results demonstrate that barley plants can take up Ge and suggest that Ge is not toxic at the levels that might occur in areas where Ge is normally mined.     

Antioxidant vitamins in barley green biomass

Two malting hulled varieties (Sebastian, Malz) and one nonmalting hull-less variety (AF Lucius) were used to assess vitamins C and E in the green biomass of young plants of spring barley ( Hordeum vulgare L.) in three stages of growth and development (BBCH 29, 31, 32-33). The samples from sampling I (BBCH 29) had statistically significantly higher vitamin C content and vitamin E activity compared to sampling I (BBCH 31). The highest average vitamin content was determined in the malting variety Sebastian (vitamin C, 520 mg 100 g(-1) DM; vitamin E, 73.06 mg kg(-1) DM) compared to the varieties Malz (501 mg 100 g(-1) DM; 61.84 mg kg(-1) DM) and AF Lucius (508 mg 100 g(-1) DM; 67.81 mg 100 g(-1) DM). The locality Krome?r?i?z? (Czech Republic, CR), with vitamin C and E contents of 524 mg 100 g(-1) DM and 68.74 mg kg(-1) DM, respectively, proved to be more suitable for growing green biomass compared to the locality Z?abc?ice (CR) (content of vitamins C and E, 477 mg 100 g(-1) DM and 66.39 mg kg(-1) DM, respectively). During the research period (2005-2007), it was determined that the green mass of young plants of spring barley was a significant source of vitamins C and E in the growth stage BBCH 29; in later samplings (BBCH 32-33) the vitamin levels dropped (by as much as 48%). These vitamins are important antioxidants for human health. Therefore, "green barley" can be recommended for the preparation of natural dietary supplements and is preferred to synthetic vitamin preparations.     

Investigation of barley germplasm in China

A total of 16,251 barley accessions including 6,026 naked barley have been collected over the whole country in China. Among them 8,865 were landraces, 1,035 bred lines and 6,351 foreign accessions. The agroecological distribution, classification and characterization of agricultural traits, abiotic stress tolerance, disease and pest resistance of the collection are described.     

Antioxidant properties of pearled barley fractions

Two barley varieties (Falcon and AC Metcalfe) were separated by pearling into seven fractions and subsequently extracted with 80% methanol. The extracts, after solvent removal, were evaluated for their radical scavenging efficacy using Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC). The radical scavenging capacity of the extracts was determined using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical, oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC(FL)), and superoxide radical assays and a photoinduced chemiluminescence technique. In both barley varieties the outermost fraction (F1) yielded the highest phenolic content. In general, Falcon had a significantly higher total phenolic content than AC Metcalfe. A similar trend was observed for TEAC, DPPH, and superoxide radical scavenging capacities of the extracts. The contents of water-soluble antioxidants of Falcon and AC Metcalfe were 1.15-12.98 and 2.20-12.25 micromol of Trolox equiv/(g of defatted material), while the corresponding lipid-soluble counterparts varied from 1.44 to 4.70 micromol of alpha-tocopherol equiv/(g of defatted material). Phenolic acids, namely, vanillic, caffeic, p-coumaric, ferulic, and sinapic acids, were identified by HPLC in barley fractions.     

Root-growth response of winter barley to subsoiling

Root growth of winter barley was studied on 2 Belgian silt loam soils after subsoiling to 60 cm depth. In the first field (well-drained) rooting depth increased significantly after removal of a plough pan. At the flowering stage, total root weight in the soil layers between 25–50 cm and 50–75 cm was 125% and 325%, respectively, higher on the subsoiled plots than on the control. The P₂O₅ and K₂O concentrations in the roots were significantly increased by 20% and 40%, respectively. In the second field (imperfectly drained) with initially relatively high bulk densities in the subsoil, the influence of subsoiling was negligible. In this study, the clearly-shown root-growth retardation that resulted in a lower yield on the control, seemed to be caused by the high penetration resistance in the plough sole (> 3MPA) rather than poor aeration status induced by the high bulk densities.     

Inheritance of grain fill rate in barley

Grain fill rate is an important characteristic influencing productivity of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) in northern areas of production. This study was conducted to determine the inheritance of grain fill rate and its relationship to other agronomic traits. Thirty‐three doubled haploid lines and parents from two crosses were evaluated for three years at Palmer, Alaska. The distribution of lines for grain fill rate in the progenies was approximately normal. Heritability of grain fill rate was 89.6% in one cross and 90.0% in the other. Rapid grain fill rate was associated with shorter effective grain fill period, longer time to heading, and higher grain yield, but not with time to maturity. Rapid grain fill rate appears to provide a means of improving grain yield without increasing time to maturity.     

Genetic variation in barley landraces from Bhutan

Summary In Bhutan, barley is usually grown in mountainous regions over 2,000 m elevation. The barleys investigated were six-rowed naked, and classified into three groups by spike and awn characters; lax spike and long awn, dense spike and long awn, and dense spike and elevated hood. They also varied in spike color; yellow, purple and black. For isozymes, there was no variation at Aat2 and Aat3 loci for aspartate aminotransferase in the Bhutanese barley.However, allelic variations at Est1, Est2 and Est4 loci for esterase were detected, and three genotypes consisting of their allelic combinations were found. Most of the collections were heterogeneous for these features. Combinations between spike-awn types and esterase genotypes were not at random, indicating that genetic diversities resulted from mechanical mixtures of different types. These types were distributed with geographical regularity in Bhutan. In comparing the spike-awn type and esterase genotype in barley collections from other regions of the Himalayas, the Bhutanese barleys were s-imilar to the Tibetan ones, but were much different from the Nepalese barleys. This suggests that the Bhutanese barleys had been introduced from Tibet.     

Magnesium in barley plants on magnesium-deficient soils

Working with fused phosphate containing Mg, we have known some of the Mg-deficient areas in Shizuoka prefecture as a field problem. In these areas, crop plants develop visual hunger signs, resulting in restricted growth and reduced yield. The manurial effect of Mg-salt added or fused phosphate is remarkably excellent in these areas or soils.     

不同肥料处理对麦绿素专用大麦嫩叶产量和品质的影响

研究了不同肥料处理(有机肥、有机肥+海藻肥、有机肥+菌肥、有机肥+化肥、化肥)对麦绿素用大麦产量和有关品质性状的影响。结果表明,有机肥基施配合追施化肥三期鲜叶总产和品质性状优于单施有机肥和化肥处理,嫩叶蛋白质、SOD酶、叶绿素及氨基酸含量显著高于其它处理;单施化肥干物质积累虽略高于有机肥基肥配合追施化肥,但嫩叶Vc含量显著较低;追施海藻肥、菌肥产量显著低于有机肥基肥配合追施化肥。     

Pattern of supply affects boron toxicity in barley

Barley (Hordeum vulgare L., cv. Stirling) was grown in pots of a sandy soil to which six levels of boron (B) were added presowing, during stem elongation, or during ear emergence. The pattern of B supply affected the development of leaf injury and other symptoms of B toxicity, the accumulation of B in the grain and in the whole shoots (WS) at maturity, and the relationships between the concentrations of B in the grain and in the WS at maturity and yield. Critical toxic concentrations (CTC) of B in plant tissues were found to vary from approximately 2 to 15 μg/g, and from approximately 50 to 420 μg/g, respectively. The findings of this experiment suggest that barley plants can accumulate relatively high levels of B and express severe levels of leaf injury and other symptoms of B toxicity in the latter stages of growth with relatively small effects on grain yield. They also suggest that the grain and the WS sampled at maturity are not suitable tissues for the diagnosis of yield depressions due to B toxicity in Stirling barley.     

Genotypic variation in Fe concentration of barley grain

Abstract

Iron deficiency in humans is the most prevalent micronutrient deficiency worldwide. To screen for high Fe cultivar, genotypic variation in Fe concentration of barley grain was investigated in two collections of barley: 274 standard varieties selected at the Barley Germplasm Center of the Research Institute for Bioresources, Okayama University (SV) and 135 varieties from the Barley Core Collection of Americas (BCCAM). The Fe concentration of barley grain showed large variation, ranging from 24.6 to 63.3 mg kg^?1 in SV, from 21.0 to 83.0 mg kg^?1 in BCCAM barleys. The Fe concentration was not affected by the key characters of barley varieties, kernel row types, and hulled or hull-less. The Fe concentration was also not related to the place of origin of the barley variety. About 90% of total Fe was localized in the grain without hull. These results provide fundamental data for breeding Fe-rich cultivars and for studying the mechanisms involved in genotypic variation in Fe concentration.     

Exploiting the diversity of barley landraces in Ethiopia

The paper describes a methodology to incorporate the collection of barley landraces available in the Plant Genetic Resources Centre of Ethiopia (PGRC/E), as well as future collections, in the Ethiopian barley breeding program. Six hundred pure lines extracted from thirty Ethiopian barley landraces were evaluated and selected, along with the original populations, between 1989 and 1993. Three lines were identified which significantly outyielded the local landrace in some of the testing sites and had a higher average yield across sites and seasons. The yield of these lines was similar to the best improved variety also developed from a landrace population. Despite the relatively small number of landrace-lines (600) in the original population, the exploitation of the diversity existing within Ethiopian barley germplasm has produced in only five years promising lines for yield at low input conditions and for disease and insect resistance. Some lines had a yield potential comparable with the best breeding lines produced earlier, and one is under multiplication for release.     

Estimating nitrogen requirements for irrigated malting barley

Abstract

The production of marketable malting barley requires careful N management to meet the quality standards set by the malting industry. Nine field trials were conducted over an eight‐year period at four locations to develop N fertilization guidelines for irrigated malting barley. Residual soil NO₃‐N (0 to 60 cm) ranged from 15 to 103 kg N/ha. Nitrogen fertilizer was applied preplant as either urea or NH₄NO₃ at rates ranging from 0 to 269 kg N/ha. Maximum yields were obtained when the sum of residual plus applied N (available N) was above 110 kg N/ha. However, the percentage of plump kernels generally fell below acceptable levels (85%) when available N exceeded 135 kg N/ha. Grain protein exceeded acceptable levels (12%) when available N was above 210 kg N/ha. Stem NO₃‐N sufficiency levels were determined from high‐yielding barley with acceptable quality parameters. At the three‐leaf stage, the barley stem NO₃‐N sufficiency level was approximately 6,000 μg/g and decreased to about 1,000 μg/g at the eight‐leaf stage.     

Phenotypic diversity of barley powdery mildew resistance sources

One hundred and twenty-one of 123 previously detected new sources of wild barley (Hordeum vulgare ssp. spontaneum) resistant to powdery mildew (Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei), and originating from Mediterranean area, and 20 standards were tested at the seedling stage for reaction to 38 selected Israeli powdery mildew isolates. The obtained resistance spectrum (a set of resistant and susceptible reactions) of each accession was divided into triplets and converted to octal numbers. This concentrates information on the resistance phenotype of each accession and makes their comparison much easier. One hundred and thirty-four different resistance spectra were determined. No compatible reaction was found in standards possessing genes mlo and Mlhb2 and in the accession PI 466634. The results demonstrate large diversity in new resistance sources, their distinction from the sources described till now as well as diversity in powdery mildew resistance of wild barley in the Mediterranean area. The results facilitate more effective further studies of such a large set of new resistance sources, and contribute to speeding up their use in barley breeding.     

Fractionation of antioxidants from autohydrolysis of barley husks

The liquid phase from nonisothermal autohydrolysis of barley husks was extracted with ethyl acetate and redissolved in ethanol to yield a crude extract (denoted BHEAE), which was subjected to further processing to enhance the antioxidant activity. A fractionation method, carried out for characterization purposes, consisted of the extraction of BHEAE with organic solvents of increasing polarity and further fractionation in Sephadex LH-20. Among the tested solvents, ethyl acetate allowed the highest yield, phenolic content, and antioxidant activity. Upon elution with methanol, products with high DPPH radical scavenging capacity (IC50 = 0.22 g/L) were obtained. The major compounds in the isolate were benzoic and cinnamic acids. Adsorption-desorption in commercial polymeric resins was carried out as an alternative strategy for BHEAE refining. This method is more suited for possible scale-up and provided a concentrate with a Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity of 9 mM, which was obtained at a yield of 18 g/kg of barley husks.