Effects of cultivar mixtures on scab control in apple orchards

The effects of two mixtures of resistant and susceptible apple cultivars on the development of scab caused by Venturia inequalis were observed in an experimental orchard over four years, initially for two years without fungicides against scab, and subsequently for two years with a moderate fungicide schedule. The row-by-row and within-row mixtures included a susceptible cultivar and a resistant cultivar in equal proportions. Without fungicides, the results showed a significant reduction of disease incidence over both years (7·3 to 21·3%), and severity in the second year (35·4%) in the within-row mixtures, compared to the monoculture of the susceptible cultivar. The best results were obtained when the within-row mixture was associated with moderate fungicide treatments; in this case the reduction in disease incidence reached 75·1% on leaves and 69·7% on fruits during the growth phase. The characteristics of the Venturia inaequalis / Malus  ×  domestica pathosystem and the results obtained in this experiment suggest a moderate but not negligible ability of cultivar mixtures for reducing epidemics of the disease.     

Evaluating predictors of apple scab with receiver operating characteristic curve analysis

ABSTRACT Apple scab (Venturia inaequalis) is a perennial threat to apple production in temperate climates throughout the world. In the eastern United States, apple scab is managed almost exclusively through the regular application of fungicides. Management of the primary phase of disease is focused on preventing infection by ascospores. Management of secondary cycles of infection is largely dependent on how well primary infections were controlled. In this study, we used receiver operating characteristic curve analysis to evaluate how well mid-season assessments of the incidence of apple scab on cluster leaves, clusters (i.e., the whorl of cluster leaves), or immature fruit can serve as predictors of apple scab on harvested fruit (harvest scab) and whether these mid-season assessments of scab could be used reliably to manage scab under various damage thresholds. Results showed that assessment of scab on immature fruit was superior at predicting harvest scab than were assessments made on clusters or cluster leaves at all damage thresholds evaluated. A management action threshold of 7% scab incidence on immature fruit was identified by Youden's index as the optimal action threshold to prevent harvest scab incidence from exceeding 5%. Action thresholds could be higher or lower than 7% when economic assumptions were factored in to the decision process. The utility of such a predictor is discussed.     

Development and evaluation of a model for management of brown rot in organic apple orchards

Temporal development of brown rot (Monilinia fructigena) on fruits was analysed in two organic apple orchards on three apple cultivars in Eastern Hungary from 2002 to 2006. The three-parameter logistic function gave the best fit to brown rot over four non-linear growth functions in all cultivars, years and orchards. Depending on location, year and cultivar, disease increased continuously from 6 to 8 weeks before harvest up to harvest, reaching 19–37% of disease incidence. Disease variables of Y _f , the final disease incidence; β, relative rate of disease progress; AUDPC _S , standardized area under disease progress curve; T _1.5 , the time when disease incidence reaches 1.5% (day), and M, the inflection point were derived from the three-parameter logistic function. The disease variables of Y _f , β, and AUDPC _S were used in a computer simulation for predicting temporal brown rot development, and the disease variables of T _1.5 , M, and Y _f were used to determine threshold values for epidemic intensity. Afterwards these were used to construct a fundamental model for developing a brown rot forecasting and management strategy (BRFMS). The fundamental model contained four parts: i) data insertion and analyses by computer simulation of pathogen submodels, ii) calculation of yield loss threshold levels based on disease incidence, iii) determination of epidemic intensity levels and iv) a decision module with suggestions for disease management practices for each epidemic intensity level. The fundamental model was supplemented with the prediction of occurrence of the first fruit rot symptoms and with the insect injury prediction related to brown rot development in order to complete a BRFMS for organic apple orchards. In a 3-year field evaluation from 2006 to 2008, season-long application of BRFMS treatments reduced the number of sprays against brown rot by 22–33% compared with the treatments of general spray schedules against brown rot.     

新疆野苹果和秦冠的抗黑星病特性

 透射电镜观察表明, 苹果叶片上表皮角质层厚度在品种间存在显著差异, 新疆野苹果和秦冠叶片的角质层厚度显著高于富士和嘎啦的;同一品种不同龄期叶片的角质层厚度随着叶龄增长而增厚, 且黑星病严重度与叶片上表皮角质层厚度间存在显著的负相关关系。苹果品种抗病性组分分析结果表明, 新疆野苹果的病害严重度最低, 约为嘎啦的1/22, 潜育期最长, 为嘎啦的2.0倍, 无(或少有)病斑出现, 不产孢。秦冠的严重度约为嘎啦的1/14, 潜育期约为嘎啦的1.5倍, 产孢量约为嘎啦的1/26。黑星病菌在新疆野苹果和秦冠叶片上的侵染概率及病斑扩展速率均显著低于富士和嘎啦。因此, 新疆野苹果和秦冠对黑星病的抗病性表现在抗侵入和抗扩展两个方面。     

Simulation of Epidemics Caused by Venturia inaequalis (Cooke) Aderh.1

We discuss simulation of apple scab epidemics based on analog computer models, multivariate regression analyses, and systems analyses. Details of underlying models and their scope for applications are emphasized. Monomolecular growth functions by Bertalanffy and Gompertz in analog computers permit fast simulation of disease progress curves. The models derived from multivariate analyses of field experiments on apple scab epidemics simulate closely the changes in infection rates. EPIVEN, our comprehensive and self–generating simulator of apple scab epidemics is reviewed and compared to a reduced model, also based on elements of the system “apple scab epidemic”.     

Alternative disease control agents induce resistance to blue mold in harvested 'red delicious' apple fruit

ABSTRACT Alternative control agents, including UV-type C (254 nm) irradiation, yeasts antagonistic to fungal growth, chitosan and harpin, were evaluated for their ability to induce resistance in cv. Red Delicious apple fruit against postharvest blue mold caused by Penicillium expansum. Freshly harvested and controlled atmosphere (CA)-stored fruit were treated with these agents at different doses and concentrations or with paired combinations of the agents. Treated fruit were inoculated with P. expansum 24, 48, or 96 h following treatment, and stored at 24 degrees C in the dark. The fruit were evaluated for development of disease every 2 days for 14 days by measuring the diameter of lesions that formed. The area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC) was calculated and analyzed statistically. All treatments were effective in reducing the AUDPC; UV-C was most effective, followed by harpin, chitosan, and the yeasts, respectively. Regardless of treatment, fresh fruit were more responsive to treatments than CA-stored fruit. There was a clear time-dependent response of the fruit to the treatments, in which treatments applied 96 h before inoculation provided the best results. In a few situations, the combinations of agents did provide an additive effect, but no synergistic effects were detected. Moreover, disease severity in fruit treated by any combination was markedly better than that in the controls. Although the combinations of treatments was overall less effective than the single treatments, they did provide significant reductions of the progress of disease in comparison with the controls. Because the fungus did not come into contact with any of the control agents, this study showed conclusively that the agents studied were able to induce resistance in the fruit rather than merely inhibit the pathogen directly. It also showed, for the first time, that harpin is able to induce resistance in harvested apple fruit. The use of these control agents may minimize the costs of control strategies and reduce the risks associated with the excessive use of fungicides in harvested apple fruit.     

Effects of Severity and Timing of Stem Canker (Leptosphaeria maculans) Symptoms on Yield of Winter Oilseed Rape (Brassica napus) in the UK

The relationships between yield loss and incidence (% plants with stems affected) or severity (mean stem score, 0–4 scale) of stem canker in winter oilseed rape were analysed using data from experiments at Rothamsted in 1991/92, Withington in 1992/93, Boxworth in 1993/94 and Rothamsted in 1997/98. Critical point models and area under disease progress curve (AUDPC) models were better than multiple point models for describing relationships between yield (tha^–1) and incidence or severity of stem canker for the four experiments. Since yield is influenced by many factors other than disease, % yield loss was calculated and critical point models and AUDPC models relating % yield loss to stem canker were constructed. The critical point models for % yield loss on stem canker incidence for three of the four experiments were similar, but differed from that for Rothamsted in 1991/92. There were also no differences between models of % yield loss on AUDPC of both incidence and severity for these three experiments. Therefore, general models of % yield loss (L) against AUDPC of incidence (X) or severity (S) of stem canker from growth stages 4.8 to 6.4 were derived from the combined data sets for the three experiments: L=–0.76+0.0075X (R²=35%, p<0.001), L=0.26+0.53S (R²=37%, p<0.001). The relationships between % yield loss and % plants with different stem canker severity scores at different growth stages were also analysed; the greatest yield losses were generally associated with the largest severity scores, for plants assessed at the same crop growth stage, and were also associated with the early development of stem lesions. Further analyses showed that % yield loss was related to incidence or severity of both basal stem cankers and upper stem lesions in experiments at Boxworth in 1993/94 and at Rothamsted in 1997/98.     

Estimation of area under the disease progress curves in a rice-blast pathosystem from two data points

Attempts were made to estimate the area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC) of rice blast disease caused by Pyricularia grisea from two data points on the disease progress curve. Forty-two rice genotypes were exposed to high disease pressure in a nursery over nine seasons. A conducive condition was created for maximum disease development through high nitrogen application, close spacing and maintenance of high relative humidity. Disease severity was recorded on alternate days beginning from disease initiation until the end of the epidemic. The estimation of AUDPC, and logistic and Gompertz apparent infection rates using either all-points (AP) or two-point (TP) methods revealed significant correlations among them. This was also confirmed through regression analysis and factor analysis. Hence, the estimation of AUDPC from two data points i.e. initial and final disease scores of the disease progress curves is recommended as providing information similar to that from all the data points; this should save valuable time, labour and economic resources.     

Relating disease progress to cumulative numbers of trapped spores: apple powdery mildew and scab epidemics in sprayed and unsprayed orchard plots

A technique for relating the progress of plant diseases caused by airborne fungal pathogens to cumulative numbers of trapped spores is proposed. The relationship involves two epidemiological parameters—a disease asymptote and the infection efficiency (disease units/spore) of inoculum. The technique was evaluated using data on apple powdery mildew and scab epidemics in sprayed and unsprayed apple orchard plots. For powdery mildew, the observed relationships were close to those proposed in the unsprayed plot, but changed after or during the period of fungicide application in sprayed plots. Parameter estimates gave useful comparative information on the epidemics. The technique was not useful for scab because of the discontinuous patterns of infection.     

Effect of soil inoculum level and environmental factors on potato powdery scab caused by Spongospora subterranea

The effects of soil inoculum level and three environmental factors (soil type, soil moisture regime and temperature) on the incidence and severity of powdery scab caused by Spongospora subterranea were investigated in potato plants grown under controlled environmental conditions. Symptoms of powdery scab on tubers were assessed visually, after which DNA was extracted from tuber peelings and quantified in a real-time polymerase chain reaction assay using primers and a TaqMan® probe specific to S. subterranea to establish tuber infection levels. Soil inoculum concentration of S. subterranea did not significantly affect the incidence and severity of either tuber infection or powdery scab symptoms at maturity. No significant differences in disease incidence and severity were found between sandy, loamy and clay soils, although the two lighter soils yielded more powdery scab than clay soil. Constant dampness of the soil resulted in significantly more disease than a fluctuating moisture regime. Infection and disease levels were high at all three temperatures tested (9, 12 and 17°C), but symptoms were most severe at 12°C. The percentage of plants with infected tubers did not increase after tuber initiation, although the amount of S. subterranea DNA detected in tubers and the severity of powdery scab symptoms increased in mature plants. Latent tuber infections were found to be common, especially under conditions suboptimal for disease development. This new information may be important for the prevention of powdery scab in potato-growing areas around the world.     

甘肃平凉苹果病虫害调查初报

采用大面积普查的方法对甘肃省平凉市苹果病虫害的发生种类?发生程度?分布特点?危害程度等进行了系统调查?调查发现全市苹果病虫害至少54种, 其中害虫37种, 病害17种, 优势病虫害9种?苹果树腐烂病?斑点落叶病?花叶病毒病和金纹细蛾是普遍发生的优势病虫害, 以苹果树腐烂病和斑点落叶病发生最重, 前者病株率为19.72%~30.54%, 后者病园率?病叶率和病情指数分别达到95.83%~100.00%?11.11%~95.56%和2.22~34.56; 苹果黑星病?褐斑病?锈病?白粉病和绣线菊蚜是局部发生的优势病虫害, 其中苹果黑星病仅分布于静宁?庄浪和灵台县, 且呈严重发生和迅速扩散态势, 病园率?病叶率?病情指数分别达到66.67%~100.00%?7.26%~35.71%和1.74~10.78, 苹果褐斑病在崆峒?崇信?泾川县(区)重或较重发生, 苹果锈病在泾川?庄浪县较重发生, 苹果白粉病在崇信县中度发生, 苹果绣线菊蚜除在个别果园发生较重外, 整体呈轻度以下发生?由病害引起的苹果叶片提早脱落现象在六盘山以东普遍和严重发生, 落叶率达到11.89%~58.67%, 是影响苹果产量和质量的关键因素之一?     

Spatial heterogeneity,incidence-incidence and incidence-lesion density relationship of apple scab (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Venturia inaequalis</Emphasis>) in managed orchards

The spatial pattern of apple scab was characterized using 10 years of disease incidence and lesion density data collected in managed orchards located in Quebec, Canada. Distributional analyses indicated that scab incidence was better characterized by the beta-binomial than the binomial distribution in 53 and 65% of the data sets at the leaf and shoot scales, respectively. Median values of the beta-binomial parameter θ, a measure of small-scale aggregation, were near 0 (0.003 and 0.028) at both sampling scales, indicating that disease incidence was close to being randomly distributed (low degree of aggregation). For lesion density, the negative binomial distribution fitted the data better than the Poisson distribution in 86% of the data sets at the leaf scale. The median value of the index of dispersion k was 0.068, indicating that aggregation was present. For all apple scab measurements, the power law models provided a good fit to the data. The estimated slope and intercept parameters were significantly greater than 1 and 0, respectively, suggesting that spatial heterogeneity changed systematically with disease incidence. Results of a covariance analysis showed that spatial heterogeneity of scab incidence at both scales and lesion density was not dependent upon shoot type but that spatial heterogeneity of scab incidence and lesion density at the leaf scale was influenced by the sampling period. A hierarchical analysis showed that scab incidence at the tree scale increased as a saturation-type curve with respect to incidence at the leaf or shoot scales. A similar relationship was observed for incidences at the shoot and leaf scales. An effective sample size model based on the binary power law parameters (Madden and Hughes, Phytopathology 89:770–781, 1999) gave the best fit to the leaf and shoot data, respectively. The incidence-lesion density relationship at both scales was well described by a complementary log-log (CLL) and log transformation model ( R_adj² = 0.97 and R_adj² = 0.94 ) \left( {R_{{adj}}^2 = 0.97\,and\,R_{{adj}}^2 = 0.94} \right) , however, the models tended to underestimate lesion density. The information of the spatial relations of apple scab within and between hierarchical scales acquired from this study can be used in developing and evaluating practical disease management strategies and to improve apple scab assessments for fungicide or cultivar susceptibility trials.     

小麦赤霉病田间病情与抽穗扬花期气象条件和病粒率关系

小麦赤霉病在温暖、高湿环境下发病严重。在小麦赤霉病预测预报中,利用小麦抽穗扬花期气象因子,预测小麦赤霉病发生程度,即4月上、中旬雨量(x1)、4月中旬雨日数(x2)与当年小麦赤霉病病情指数(Y1)组建回归预测式:Y1=0.913 1+0.093 5x1+2.460 3x2±2.490 9,及时指导防治工作。通过小麦赤霉病田间病情指数(Y1)、病穗率(x3)与病粒率(Y2)的关系,建立回归预测式:Y2=0.248 2+0.946 9Y1-0.154 1x3±0.344 3,为脱毒处理提供理论依据。     

Standard area diagram set for assessment of severity and temporal progress of apple blotch

Apple blotch (Marssonina coronaria) is a foliar disease of increasing importance globally. Methods to quantify the disease and knowledge about epidemiology are required for new studies on the disease. The objectives of this study were to develop a standard area diagram set (SADs) to assess apple blotch severity and to describe the temporal progress of the disease under field conditions on older and younger leaves of two apple cultivars. For the development of SADs, symptomatic leaves were collected and scanned to obtain the actual severity. Based on the pattern of the disease, a SADs was elaborated and validated. Leaf severities were estimated without and with SADs by 12 raters to validate the tool. After validation, the SADs was used to assess apple blotch in older and younger leaves of selected shoots during the vegetative cycle of cvs. Eva and Gala. SADs severities ranged from 0.2 to 96%. Accuracy, precision, and reliability of the estimates were significantly improved when the SADs was used. In the field, the onset of apple blotch was in late spring and greater increases in severity occurred during summer. Rates of disease progress ranged from 0.09 to 0.13. Epidemics were different in older and younger leaves at the end of the apple vegetative cycle for both cultivars tested. Our work provided a tool for apple blotch quantification and described the disease progress curve under subtropical conditions, which can contribute as basis for future studies.

     

Implementing wood ants in biocontrol: Suppression of apple scab and reduced aphid tending

BACKGROUND

Ants can become efficient biocontrol agents in plantation crops as they prey on pest insects and may inhibit plant pathogens by excreting broad-spectrum antibiotics. However, ants also provide a disservice by augmenting attended honeydew producing homopterans. This disservice may be avoided by offering ants artificial sugar as an alternative to honeydew. Here we tested the effect of artificial sugar feeding on aphid abundance in an apple plot with wood ants (Formica polyctena, Förster), and tested the effect of ant presence on apple scab (Venturia inaequalis, Cooke) disease incidence.

RESULTS

Over a 2-year period, sugar feeding eliminated ant-attended aphid populations on the apple trees. Furthermore, scab symptoms on both leaves and apples were reduced considerably on ant trees compared to control trees without ants. The presence of ants on the trees reduced leaf scab infections by 34%, whereas spot numbers on fruits were reduced by between 53 and 81%, depending on apple variety. In addition, the spots were 56% smaller.

CONCLUSION

This shows that problems with wood ant-attended homopterans can be solved and that ants can control both insect pests and plant pathogens. We therefore propose wood ants as a new effective biocontrol agent suitable for implementation in apple orchards and possibly other plantation crops. © 2023 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.     

A during-infection spray strategy using sulphur compounds,copper, silicon and a new formulation of potassium bicarbonate for primary scab control in organic apple production

In a field experiment conducted over two growing seasons, the effectiveness and phytotoxicity of inorganic fungicides such as sulphur, lime sulphur, copper, silicon and Armicarb (a new formulation of potassium bicarbonate) was compared with water for the control of primary apple scab infections in Belgium on high, medium and low scab-susceptible cultivars (cvs ‘Pinova’, ‘Pirouette’ and ‘Reinette des Capucins’, respectively). In order to drastically reduce the amount of fungicide applied in the orchard, two approaches were used: (1) a strategy involving spraying during the infection process, before fungal penetration and (2) a tunnel sprayer machine for treatment applications. Under field conditions highly favourable for disease, low rates of elemental sulphur (31.8 and 38.6 kg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ in 2005 and 2006, respectively) combined with low rates of copper (2.1 kg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ in both years) provided the best scab control and reduced scab severity on the fruits of cv. ‘Pinova’ by 97 and 98% compared with water control in 2005 and 2006, respectively. Lime sulphur was much more effective than wettable sulphur and appeared to be efficient at temperatures below 10°C, but its effectiveness against apple scab decreased if the treatments were applied 12–24 h later than in the ‘during-infection’ spray strategy. Armicarb used alone significantly reduced apple scab severity on the leaves and fruits of the three cultivars compared with the water control. Its effectiveness was as good as wettable sulphur applied using the same timing and dosage. Silicon reduced apple scab on fruits very slightly, but not on leaves. The amounts of wettable sulphur, lime sulphur, copper, silicon and potassium bicarbonate used in this experiment to control apple scab were not phytotoxic, did not increase fruit russet, did increase the yield of each cultivar and did not affect summer density of the beneficial Typhlodromus pyri. The potential and limitations of ‘during-infection’ spraying as a protection strategy against apple scab in organic farming are discussed.     

Effect of two-component cultivar mixtures on development of wheat yellow rust disease in the field and greenhouse in the Nepal Himalayas

Wheat yellow rust (WYR), caused by Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici (PST), is a major disease of wheat, and deployment of a single cultivar often leads to disease epidemics. Effect of inoculum level, foliar fungicide spray, and wheat cultivar mixtures were evaluated on disease development in the field and greenhouse in Nepal. Treatments were arranged in a split–split plot design with three replications in both experiments. Two inoculum levels of PST (low and high) were main plot factors; nontreated control and foliar spray of fungicides (Mancozeb and Bayleton) were subplot factors; and two-component cultivar mixtures, composed of different ratios of a susceptible (S) and a resistant (R) cultivars (90:10, 80:20, and 50:50, 100:0, and 0:100) were sub–subplot factors. WYR severity was assessed at different time intervals, and disease development was calculated as area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC). Inoculum level did not cause significant differences in AUDPC in the field but did in the greenhouse. Foliar spray of fungicides reduced the AUDPC in the greenhouse and field. In both experiments, AUDPC values were low in cultivar mixtures compared with a pure stand of a susceptible cultivar. As the proportion of resistant cultivar increased compared with the susceptible cultivar in the S:R mixture component, disease severity decreased with a consequent increase in grain yield. The greater yield obtained with cultivar mixtures compared with only the susceptible cultivar, independent of inoculum level and fungicide spray in the field, revealed a promising strategy to manage WYR in Nepal.     

关中麦区小麦赤霉病流行分区研究

利用２０余的的气候资料和病情数据,以逐步判别分析法将关中麦区各县（市）划分为三大气候区。长安、户县等１３县（市）为有利病气候区,岐山、凤翔等５县（市）为过渡区,蒲城,富平等８县为不利发病气候区。气候条件对发的有利性在关中盆地自西向东渐次降低。在气候分区的基础上,地下水位与发病率的回归关系,进一步以乡镇为单位划分小麦赤霉病流行区。结果表明,２０３个乡镇为赤霉病严重区,１１１个为中度区,１４３个为轻度     

Traditional and commercial apple and pear cultivars as sources of resistance to fireblight1

In Hungary, fireblight research programmes were initiated on pear in 1999 and on apple in 2000, with the aim of evaluating the susceptibility or resistance of commercial cultivars. Sources of resistance for future breeding were also sought among traditional apple cultivars collected from Ukraine and pear cultivars in the Hungarian gene bank (Szigetcsép). Experiments were done under secure conditions. Inocula were mixtures of characteristic Erwinia amylovora isolates from pear and apple in Hungary. Host responses (symptom development, disease severity and multiplication rate of bacterial cells in host tissues) were assessed on shoots, flowers and fruits. About 30 pear and 30 apple cultivars, and 35 apple hybrids, were tested and grouped into four categories for pear and three for apple. Of the pear cultivars tested, 50% were susceptible, 30% moderately susceptible and only 10% of low susceptibility. Different plant organs occasionally displayed different responses. Members of the last two groups might serve as useful candidates for growing under IPM conditions. Among the traditional Hungarian varieties tested, we found high resistance in ‘Sikulai’ and ‘Szemes alma’, which could be used as sources of fireblight resistance in breeding programmes and also grown in organic orchards. Furthermore, among the offspring of the apple ‘Prima’ (scab‐resistant), we have found highly resistant lines.     

Real-time PCR as a promising tool to monitor growth of Venturia spp. in scab-susceptible and -resistant apple leaves

Apple scab, the most important disease of apple worldwide, is caused by Venturia inaequalis. Currently, evaluation of fungal pathogenicity and host resistance is based on a symptomatic disease rating. However, this method does not provide an accurate measurement of the degree of infection and cannot detect early fungal development in symptomless leaves. In this study, a Venturia-specific real-time PCR assay was developed using primers designed around the specific internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) region of the 5.8S rRNA gene. Using SYBR? Green I technology, the assay can accurately quantify Venturia DNA over a concentration range of at least five orders of magnitude. Detection sensitivities were in the order of 100?fg. The method was used to quantify Venturia genomic DNA levels in leaves of three apple cultivars with different levels and types of scab resistance and artificially infected with V. inaequalis. The assay clearly discriminated between Venturia levels in monogenic resistant (‘Topaz’), polygenic resistant (‘Discovery’), and susceptible (‘Golden Delicious’) cultivars, and proved especially useful to quantify pathogen levels during the initial latent stage of infection. The real-time PCR data of ‘Golden Delicious’ were consistent with the observed evolution of the degree of sporulation during a time-course experiment. Although measurements were influenced by the presence of co-extracted PCR-inhibitors, the impact of these compounds was independent of the apple cultivar or the initial amount of fungal DNA present. In conclusion, real-time PCR amplification of the ITS2-5.8S rDNA of Venturia spp. is a faster, more objective and more sensitive method to monitor fungal growth and to evaluate host resistance than phenotypic disease rating scores.