Stocking density and date decisions in semi‐intensive shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei (Boone, 1931) farming: a bioeconomic approach

This article analyses the optimal selection of stocking density and date in semi‐intensive culture of shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei (Boone, 1931). The empirical evaluation of productive and economic scenarios derived from the specific choice of these management variables is often unfeasible for decision makers. To overcome this limitation, the bioeconomic modelling is widely applicable in aquaculture systems. In the present study, profit maximization for a semi‐intensive shrimp farm is obtained through the development of a bioeconomic model to analyse the combination of stocking density (range: 6–30 postlarvae (PL) m^?2) and date (from March 1st to June 1st) as decision variables for a shrimp farm located in Sinaloa, Mexico. The results show that pond water temperatures prevailing during culture cycle when the stocking date is June 1st (temperature in 19‐weeks culture period: 30.76 ± 0.87°C) and the stocking density is 20–24 PL m^?2 produce a maximized Present Value Profit (PVπ) of  USThis article analyses the optimal selection of stocking density and date in semi‐intensive culture of shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei (Boone, 1931). The empirical evaluation of productive and economic scenarios derived from the specific choice of these management variables is often unfeasible for decision makers. To overcome this limitation, the bioeconomic modelling is widely applicable in aquaculture systems. In the present study, profit maximization for a semi‐intensive shrimp farm is obtained through the development of a bioeconomic model to analyse the combination of stocking density (range: 6–30 postlarvae (PL) m^?2) and date (from March 1st to June 1st) as decision variables for a shrimp farm located in Sinaloa, Mexico. The results show that pond water temperatures prevailing during culture cycle when the stocking date is June 1st (temperature in 19‐weeks culture period: 30.76 ± 0.87°C) and the stocking density is 20–24 PL m^?2 produce a maximized Present Value Profit (PVπ) of  US$^?ha 10 350 and PVπ US$^?ha 2526 for weekly mortality rates at low (2.1%) and medium (5.8%) levels respectively. The marginal change in the cost of feed (±1%) has the greatest effect on PVπ (?0.58% and 0.59% respectively). The discussion focuses on the combined effect of mortality rate, stocking density and especially, on the stocking date decision, for a given production planning framework, taking into account that the stocking date is the main management decision variable to cope with viral diseases outbreaks.     

The impact of tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon Fabricius, postlarvae stocking density on production in traditional tambak systems in East Java, Indonesia

The effects of stocking density [range: 2.0-5.5 postlarvae (PL) m^?2] and water quality on the production of a traditional tambak tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon Fabricius, culture system on one farm in Probolinggo, East Java, were studied during one culture period of 126 days using eight ponds. Production characteristics were recorded and water quality parameters monitored. Production was quadratically influenced by stocking density. The optimum density was 4.8 PL m^?2, which corresponds with a production per crop of around 300 kg ha^?1. Production was also quadratically related to mean shrimp body weight at harvest, while there was an inverse relationship between production and bottom organic matter, indicating that shrimp biomass diminishes the amount of organic matter accumulating at bottom of the tambak.     

ECONOMIC RISK ASSESSMENT OF A SEMI-INTENSIVE SHRIMP FARM IN SINALOA,MEXICO

In Mexico shrimp farming is the most important aquaculture activity. However, its sustainable development has been threatened in recent years by the economic risk associated with low yields caused by outbreaks of viral diseases. A stochastic bioeconomic model was developed to analyze the economics of farm management adjustments as a response to disease risks, using pond-level data from a farm operating in the State of Sinaloa, Mexico, during the period 2001–2005. The data base analyzed included different combinations of stocking density (in the range 6–30 PL/m²) and culture time (from 12 to 31 weeks), which allows for wider application of the simulation results, even at the industry level. Results from this study indicate that operating costs would increase by 33% if the farmer would choose to market product directly. Scenarios with lower stocking densities and intermediate culture times generated the highest probabilities 6–9 PL/m² 16–19 weeks (76%/100%/70%), and 10–14 PL/m² 20–24 weeks (72%/99%) of achieving superior economic performance, as demonstrated by achieving the target reference point of 35% operating profit margin ratio. The study reinforces the value of the current trends in Sinaloa to reduce stocking density as a good management practice to decrease the impact of diseases. This study also provides important additional knowledge on the specific economic results and risks associated with the combination of these two management variables at different levels.     

陆基圆池循环水条件下养殖密度对大口黑鲈生长及养殖效能的影响

为研究陆基圆池循环水养殖条件下大口黑鲈(Micropterus salmoides)适宜的养殖密度,设置55、65、75、85、95尾/m²等5种养殖密度(分别标记为A1、A2、A3、A4、A5组),进行了63 d的大口黑鲈养殖试验,通过测定和分析试验鱼的体质量日增长率、体长日增长率、饲料系数、体质量均匀度和单位面积产量等指标,评价不同养殖密度对大口黑鲈生长和主要养殖效能的影响。结果显示:(1)从次低密度的A2组(65尾/m²)至密度最高的A5组(95尾/m²),试验鱼的体长日增长率基本上随着养殖密度的提高而下降,最高的A2组比A3、A4和A5组分别高了31.6%、82.9%和92.3%,并且差异显著(P<0.05);(2)从A2组至A5组,试验鱼的体质量日增长率和特定生长率均随着养殖密度的提高而下降;(3)A2组的饲料系数比A1、A3、A4和A5组分别降低了16.7%、28.6%、55.4%和56.9%;(4)单位面积产量和产品均匀度均在A2组达到最高。基于生长性能及养殖效能的综合评价,陆基圆池循环水养殖条件下大口黑鲈成鱼养殖阶段较适宜的养殖密度为65尾/m²。     

Effects of water flow rate on growth rate,mortality and biomass return of abalone in slab tanks

The capital‐intensive nature of land‐based abalone farming demands that infrastructure be fully utilized. This study investigated whether the negative impact of high stocking density in shallow raceway tanks could be ameliorated by optimizing water flow. We quantified the effect of flow rate (87–246 L min^?1) on the performance of 2‐year‐old hybrid abalone (Haliotis laevigata and Haliotis rubra) held at two stocking densities (11400 and 7600 tank^?1). A 50% higher density yielded a 27% increase in biomass gain, despite a 10% growth reduction and 3% higher mortality. At the lower density, there was an optimal flow rate of approximately 200 L^?1, at which biomass gain was 474 kg and the feed conversion ratio (FCR) was 1.31. At the higher density, biomass gain (max = 658 kg) and FCR (min = 1.41) improved linearly with increasing flow, suggesting that an optimal flow rate exists at 246 L^?1 or beyond those tested. Increased oxygen availability with increasing flow is thought to have enhanced abalone performance, although flows greater than 200 L min^?1 may have reduced performance at low density due to feed washout and nutrient leaching. Overall, greater financial return per tank was favoured by the combination of high stocking density and high water flow.     

Effects of stocking density of freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii and addition of different levels of tilapia Oreochromis niloticus on production in C/N controlled periphyton based system

An on-station trial was conducted to evaluate the effect of stocking density of freshwater prawn and addition of different levels of tilapia on production in carbon/nitrogen (C/N) controlled periphyton based system. The experiment had a 2 × 3 factorial design, in which two levels of prawn stocking density (2 and 3 juveniles m^? 2) were investigated in 40 m² earthen ponds with three levels of tilapia density (0, 0.5 and 1 juveniles m^? 2). A locally formulated and prepared feed containing 30% crude protein with C/N ratio close to 10 was applied considering the body weight of prawn only. Additionally, tapioca starch was applied to the water column in all ponds to increase C/N ratio from 10 (as in feed) to 20. Increasing stocking density of tilapia decreased the chlorophyll a concentration in water and total nitrogen in sediment, and increased the bottom dissolved oxygen. The concentrations of inorganic nitrogenous species (NH₃–N, NO₂–N and NO₃–N) were low due to maintaining a high C/N ratio (20) in all treatment ponds. Increasing prawn density decreased periphyton biomass (dry matter, ash free dry matter, chlorophyll a) by 3–6% whereas tilapia produced a much stronger effect. Increasing stocking density of freshwater prawn increased the total heterotrophic bacterial (THB) load of water and sediment whereas tilapia addition decreased the THB load of periphyton. Both increasing densities of prawn and tilapia increased the value of FCR. Increasing prawn density increased gross and net prawn production (independent of tilapia density). Adding 0.5 tilapia m^? 2 on average reduced prawn production by 12–13%, and tilapia addition at 1 individual m^? 2 produced a further 5% reduction (independent of prawn density). The net yield of tilapia was similar between 0.5 and 1 tilapia m^? 2 treatments and increased by 8.5% with increasing stocking density of prawn. The combined net yield increased significantly with increasing stocking density of prawn and tilapia addition. The significantly highest benefit cost ratio (BCR) was observed in 0.5 tilapia m^? 2 treatment but freshwater prawn density had no effect on it. Therefore, both stocking densities (2 and 3 juveniles m^? 2) of prawn with the addition of 0.5 tilapia m^? 2 resulted in higher fish production, good environmental condition and economic return and hence, polyculture of prawn and tilapia in C/N controlled periphyton based system is a promising options for ecological and sustainable aquaculture.     

Growout production of camouflage grouper, Epinephelus polyphekadion (Bleeker), in a tank culture system

Growout production of the camouflage grouper, Epinephelus polyphekadion (Bleeker), in a 10-m³-capacity fibreglass tank culture system was evaluated, using hatchery-produced fingerlings (56-59 g initial weight) at stocking densities of five, 15 and 45 fish m^?3. During the first 9 months of a 12-month growout period, the fish were fed twice a day with a moist pellet feed containing 40.9% protein. From month 10 onwards until harvest, the fish were fed moist pellets in the morning and trash fish in the evening at a 1:1 ratio. The final weight of fish at harvest was up to 900 g, with mean weights of 544.6 ± 170.72 g at five fish m^?3, 540.2 ± 150.82 g at 15 fish m-^?3 and 513.3 ± 134.52 g at 45 fish m^?3. The results showed no significant differences (P > 0.05) in growth rate and fish size between the different stocking densities tested. The average daily growth rate ranged from 0.62 to 3.38 g fish^?1 day^?1, with mean weights of 1.49 ± 0.74 g fish^?1 day^?1 at five fish m^?3 through 0.53 to 2.38 g fish^?1 day^?1, 1.32 ± 0.57 g fish^?1 day^?1 at 15 fish m^?3 to 0.48-3.32 g fish^?1 day^?1 and 1.31 g fish^?1 day^?1 at 45 fish m^?3 stocking density. Although up to 100% survival was observed at the lowest stocking density, the survival rate significantly decreased (P < 0.05) with increasing stocking density. The food conversion ratio (FCR) significantly decreased (P <0.05) with increasing stocking densities, showing efficient feed utilization with increasing stocking densities of E. polyphekadion. The FCR averaged 2.1 at a stocking density of 45 fish m^?3. The yield in terms of kg fish produced m^?3 of water used in the culture system significantly increased (P < 0.001) from five to 45 fish m^?3. The yield averaged 17.3 ±0.53 kg m^?3 at a stocking density of 45 fish m^?3. The present results show that the present tank culture system could sustain more biomass in terms of increasing fish stocking densities. The growth performance of E. polyphekadion observed during this investigation has been reviewed with other grouper species.     

Comparative study of growth performance of three strains of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, L. at two stocking densities

This study was conducted to investigate the effect of stocking density (125 or 200 fish m^?3) on the growth performance of three strains of the Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus: the non‐improved strain (NS), the genetically improved farmed tilapia (GIFT) and the Freshwater Aquaculture Center selected tilapia known as the FaST selected line (SL). Each strain and density combination was triplicated in 0.42 m³ fibreglass tanks within a re‐circulating water system. Water temperature was maintained at 29.0±1.0°C. Large Nile tilapia having a mean body weight of 100–110 g were stocked in each tank and hand‐fed four times daily with commercial tilapia pellets (35% protein) for 104 days. Results showed that at the two stocking densities, the GIFT and SL strains showed a significantly higher (P<0.05) mean weight (MWT), daily growth rate (DGR), specific growth rate (SGR), feed conversion ratio (FCR) and gross yield (GY) than the NS. In all three strains, growth performance was negatively affected by stocking density. The lower density (125 fish m^?3) treatments had significantly higher MWT, DGR and SGR than the higher density one (200 fish m^?3). However, higher FCR and GY were observed at the higher density. Survival rates were high in all treatments and were not affected by strain or density. In general, the SL strain had better growth parameters than the GIFT strain. The findings of this study demonstrated the superior growth performance of the improved strains at both densities compared with the NS. The higher density (200 fish m^?3) could be more profitable for the tilapia farms in Kuwait than the lower density of (125 fish m^?3) in terms of reduced land cost and facilities, demand on the limited low‐salinity underground water and manpower.     

Effects of stocking density on growth performance and welfare‐related physiological parameters of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. in recirculating aquaculture system

Stocking density, representing a potential source of long‐term stress, is widely recognized as a critical factor in aquaculture husbandry. Atlantic salmon were reared at low‐density (LSD, ~9.80–18.41 kg m^?3, initial to final density), medium‐density (MSD, ~19.62–36.96 kg m^?3) and high‐density (HSD, ~28.79–53.54 kg m^?3) stocking levels for 66 days to investigate the stress‐induced changes in fish growth and welfare. At the end of the trial, the salmon in HSD group showed significant lower final weight and higher ration level than those in MSD and LSD groups (P < 0.05). The salmon farmed in LSD group had higher special growth rate (SGR) and lower feed conversion ratio (FCR) (P < 0.05). However, stocking density could not affect the mortality, condition factor and coefficient of variation of salmon. The pectoral fin index of salmon in LSD group was significantly higher than that in HSD group (P < 0.05). Fifteen haematological and serum parameters were detected to assess the stress and welfare levels of salmon. The salmon farmed in HSD group had higher glucose (GLU) level and lower Cl^?, haemoglobin (HGB) and red blood cell (RBC) concentrations (P < 0.05). Contrast to the pattern of superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, the cortisol, maleic dialdehyde (MDA) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels of HSD group were higher than those in other two groups (P < 0.05). All these findings will provide a reference for selecting suitable stocking density in Atlantic salmon farming industry.     

Effects of stocking density on mortality,growth and physiology of juvenile Amur sturgeon (Acipenser schrenckii)

To evaluate effects of stocking density on welfare of Amur sturgeon (Acipenser schrenckii), an experiment was designed using three initial stocking densities in flow‐through tanks (LSD = 3.7 kg m^?3, MSD = 6.9 kg m^?3, and HSD = 9.3 kg m^?3, respectively) for 60 days. Growth, body composition, and haematological and biochemical parameters were monitored. The mortality and feed conversion rate (FCR) were not affected by stocking density. However, the specific growth rate (SGR), final weight and weight gain in the HSD group were significantly lower than in the LSD and MSD groups. The hepatosomatic (HSI) and viscerosomatic indices (VSI) varied inversely with regard to stocking density. Stocking density did not affect crude protein levels in fish. In contrast, the total lipid level was significantly higher in the LSD group compared to the MSD and HSD groups. The levels of erythrocytes and haemoglobin were positively correlated with stocking density. Serum total bilirubin and urea in HSD group were significantly higher than in the LSD group while serum triglycerides showed opposite tendencies. Differences between treatments were not registered for glucose, total protein and albumin. In conclusion, higher stocking density resulted in increased immunosuppression and enhanced energy mobilization. The latter was necessary to enable Amur sturgeon to cope with crowding.     

Holding wild caught red king crab,Paralithodes camtschaticus: effects of stocking density and feeding on survival and meat content

In this study, the effects of different stocking densities on survival, injury and meat content of captive male red king crab (mean weight = 2.6 kg) were examined. The first experiment was carried out in square plastic tanks with stocking densities of 100, 150 and 200 kg m^?3 for 56 days. In a second experiment, king crabs were kept at a stocking density of 60 kg m^?3 and were either fed or not fed. Both mortality and occurrence of injuries increased significantly with increasing stocking density. In the highest density groups, mortality and frequency of injury was 17% and 14% respectively, compared with 5% and 4% in the 150 kg m^?3 group. The percentage meat content was significantly lower at the final census compared with the initial census in all stocking density groups. In Experiment 2, there were no mortalities or injuries in either the fed or unfed treatments. The average percentage meat content increased in the fed treatment and decreased in the starved treatments. The results show that adult male king crab can maintain high survival rates at stocking densities up to 150 kg m^?3 in holding facilities of the design used in the present study for periods up to 2 months. However, to reduce mortality and frequency of injury over this period densities as low as 60 kg m^?3 and a holding system with a large bottom surface area are recommended.     

Cage culture of sutchi catfish, Pangasius sutchi (Fowler 1937): effects of stocking density on growth, survival, yield and farm profitability

The sutchi catfish, Pangasius sutchi (Fowler 1937) was grown at 10 stocking densities in cages suspended in a river‐fed channel during the summer of 2000. Catfish fingerlings (mean length 9.1–9.7 cm and mean weight 5.9–6.7 g) were stocked at densities of 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120, 130, 140 and 150 fish m^?3. After 150 days, growth and yield parameters were studied and a simple economic analysis was carried out to calculate profitability. The mean gross yield ranged from 15.6±0.27 to 34.5±0.44 kg m^?3 and the net yield ranged from 15.2±0.22 to 33.5±0.36 kg m^?3 and showed significant variations (P<0.05). The mean weights of fish at harvest were inversely related to stocking density. Both gross and net yields were significantly different and were directly influenced by stocking density but the specific growth rate, survival rate and feed conversion rate were unaffected. Higher stocking density resulted in higher yield per unit of production cost and lower cost per unit of yield. The net revenue increased positively with increasing stocking density. A density of 150 fish m^?3 produced the best production and farm economics among the densities tested in this experiment.     

An evaluation of intraspecific competition for Pacific white shrimp Penaeus vannamei (Boone) in extensive/semi-intensive ponds

The hypothesis that intraspecific competition affects survival and growth during the culture and harvest at extensive/semi-intensive Penaeus vannamei shrimp ponds was evaluated. Thus, the effect of stocking density on the biomass, shrimp average weight, survival, and economic performance during the culture (133 days) and at the harvest of the P. vannamei shrimp was investigated in 400 m² earthen ponds. In order to reduce the likelihood of infectious diseases, shrimp received preventive health treatments (probiotics and β-1,3/1,6-glucans) during all culture phases. In this way, the effect of density on the intraspecific competition for space/food was isolated. Ponds stocked at 6, 9, and 12 shrimp m^?2 showed competition-dependent growth. Ponds stocked at 12 shrimp m^?2 presented a mortality (12 %) between days 76 and 99. Competition, and accordingly individual growth reduction, could have begun at day 76 at a density of 5 shrimp m^?2. Survival was significantly higher at 6 shrimp m^?2 (84.2 ± 6.2 %) compared with the 12 shrimp m^?2 (64.8 ± 12.4 %) treatment, while no significant differences in yield were observed between both treatments. Ponds stocked at 3 and 6 shrimp m^?2 presented the best benefit–cost rates. The optimal shrimp density during the experimental culture was 5 shrimp m^?2. Given the experimental conditions and considering the fraction of density-independent mortality observed, the optimum stocking density was found to be 6 shrimp m^?2.     

Zootechnical and physiological responses of whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) postlarvae reared in bioflocs and subjected to stress conditions during nursery phase

The objective of this study was to assess zootechnical and physiological performance of Litopenaeus vannamei postlarvae (PL) reared in three environments (CW, clear water; B, biofloc; BS, biofloc with artificial substrates) at three stocking densities (300, 600, 900 PL/m³) for 8 weeks. At the end of experimentation, shrimp were subjected to hypoxia, and physiological response was again assessed. During rearing, low levels of total ammonia nitrogen, nitrite (NO₂^?) and nitrate (NO₃^?) were observed in B and BS for 600 and 900 PL/m³. For 300 PL/m³, a slight accumulation of NO₂^? and NO₃^? was detected. For the same stocking density, shrimp reared in B and BS showed significantly higher weights than those grown in CW, except for final weight. No significant differences were observed in survival. The use of biofloc and artificial substrates permitted doubling density from 300 to 600 PL/m³ without affecting growth, survival, feed conversion rate and obtaining twice the biomass. Shrimp grown in B and BS stored a surplus of glycogen and carbohydrates in their hepatopancreas, which probably gave them a better physiological capacity to counteract high‐stocking densities and hypoxia. A tendency of a higher adenylate energetic charge was observed in shrimp maintained in B and BS.     

Effects of stocking density on the nutrient budget and growth of the western king prawn (Penaeus latisulcatus Kishinouye) in a recirculating aquaculture system

Intensification in the commercial culture of prawns can have a significant impact on the water quality and hence on the survival, growth and the surrounding environment. The present study aims to evaluate the effects of stocking density on the water quality and performance of the western king prawns (Penaeus latisulcatus) and the nutrient budget of the culture environment. Four stocking densities of 4, 8, 16 and 32 prawns m^?2 were tested in 12 recirculating systems. Prawn weight and specific growth rate increased with decreasing stocking density, while the survival rate showed the reverse trend. The mean total ammonia nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen, total phosphorus and soluble reactive phosphorus were significantly higher (P<0.05) at the higher stocking density. The nutrient budget revealed that the prawns could assimilate only 9.34–20.13% nitrogen and 4.97–11.25% phosphorus of the total nutrient inputs. The drained water at harvest was the major sink of phosphorus and nitrogen at stocking densities of 4, 8 and 16, which accounted for 45.59–64.82% and 44.28–65.62% of the total inputs, respectively, while a significant proportion of nitrogen sunk into the sediment at 32 prawns m^?2. The study suggested that the stocking densities of western king prawns can be up to 16 prawns m^?2 in the recirculating water environment.     

Effects of stocking density of Labeo rohita on survival, growth and production in cages

Labeo rohita (139.92 ± 0.76 mm/24.33 ± 0.45 g) was reared for 92 days in floating square cages (10 m² area, 1.5 m height) in a pond (2 ha) at six stocking densities (5, 7.5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 fish m^?2) each with 3 replicates. Fish were fed daily once in the morning with rice polish and groundnut oil cake (1:1) in dough form at 3 % of the total body weight. Survival ranged from 96 to 100 % in different stocking densities. Final average body weight, average body weight gain, mean daily body weight gain and SGR decreased (P < 0.05) with increasing stocking density. Conversely, final biomass, biomass gain and FCR increased (P < 0.05) with increasing stocking density. The highest growth rate of fish could be achieved up to 60 days at 5 fish m^?2 and 92 days at other densities. The reduced growth rate at 10–25 fish m^?2 for 60 days of culture indicated that stress is related to size and density of the fish, suggesting that utmost care is required to reduce the stress at high densities. Maximum production and profit was observed at the highest stocking density. Non-lethal levels of water and soil qualities at different sites (cage premises, and 20 and 200 m away from cage area) suggested that cage aquaculture could be done safely covering 0.9 % of pond area. Production of advanced fingerlings in cages was found a viable alternative to their culture in pond.     

Stocking strategies for production of Litopenaeus vannamei (Boone) in amended freshwater in inland ponds

The performance of the Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei (Boone) under various stocking strategies was evaluated in earthen ponds filled with freshwater amended with major ions. Six 0.1‐ha earthen ponds located in Pine Bluff, AR, USA, were filled with freshwater in 2003 and 2004, and potassium magnesium sulphate added to provide 50 mg K⁺ L^?1 and stock salt added to provide 0.5 g L^?1 salinity. In 2003, three ponds either were stocked with PL₁₅ shrimp (39 PL m^?2) for 125 days of grow out or with PL₂₅ shrimp for 55 days (23 PL m^?2) followed by a 65‐day (28 PL m^?2) grow‐out period. In 2004, ponds were stocked with 7, 13 or 30 PL₁₅ m^?2 for 134 days of grow out. Salinity averaged 0.7 g L^?1 during both years, and concentration of SO₄^?2, K⁺, Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ was higher, and Na⁺ and Cl^? was lower in amended pond water than in seawater at 0.7 g L^?1 salinity. Potassium concentration in amended water was 52–61% of the target concentration. Shrimp yields ranged from 3449 kg ha^?1 in 2003 to 4966 kg ha^?1 in 2004 in ponds stocked with 30–39 PL₁₅ m^?2 for a 125–134‐day culture period. At harvest, mean individual weight ranged from 17.1 to 19.3 g shrimp^?1. In ponds stocked with PL₂₅ shrimp, yields averaged 988 and 2462 kg ha^?1 for the 1st and 2nd grow‐out periods respectively. Gross shrimp yield in 2004 increased linearly from 1379–4966 kg ha^?1 with increased stocking rate. These experiments demonstrated that L. vannamei can be grown successfully in freshwater supplemented with major ions to a final salinity of 0.7 g L^?1.     

Effect of stocking density on the growth performance and yield of Nile tilapia [Oreochromis niloticus (L., 1758)] in a cage culture system in Lake Kuriftu,Ethiopia

This research was conducted to investigate the effect of stocking density on the growth performance and yield of Oreochromis niloticus in cage culture in Lake Kuriftu. The treatments had stocking densities of 50 (50F), 100 (100F), 150 (150F), and 200 (200F) fish per m^?3. All treatments were in duplicate. Juveniles with an average weight of 45. 76±0.25 g were stocked in the treatments. The fish were fed a composite mixture of mill sweeping, cotton seed, and Bora food complex at 2% of their body weight twice per day using feeding trays for 150 days in powdered form. The growth performance of O. niloticus was density dependent. The final mean weight of O. niloticus ranged 147.76±0.28–219.71±1.42 g and the mean daily weight gain was 0.69±0.01–1.15±0.02 g day^?1. Fish held in cages with lower density were heavier than the ones held at higher densities, and showed higher weight gain and daily weight gain. The most effective stocking density, in terms of growth parameters, was 50 fish m^?3. The gross yield (4.5–20.55 kg cage^?1) showed a significant difference with increasing stocking density (P<0.05). Moreover, the apparent food conversion ratio (2.48–7.22) was significantly affected by stocking density (P<0.05). However, survival rate was not affected by stocking density (P>0.05). It can be concluded that the most effective stocking densities were at 50 fish m^?3 cage for larger size fish demand in a short period and 200 fish m^?3 for higher gross production with supplementary feed.     

Development of a zero water discharge (ZWD)—Recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) hybrid system for super intensive white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) culture under low salinity conditions and its industrial trial in commercial shrimp urban farming in Gresik,East Java,Indonesia

This study aims to develop a hybrid zero water discharge (ZWD) - recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) system to improve water quality, as well as the growth, survival, and productivity, of the super-intensive white shrimp culture under low salinity conditions at semi-mass and the industrial level. The study consisted of two parts: (1) a semi-mass trial for the optimization of shrimp production using a hybrid ZWD-RAS system with a total volume of 2.7 m³ at the different shrimp stocking densities of 500 PL/m³, 750 PL/m³, and 1,000 PL/m³ and (2) an industrial trial at a commercial shrimp urban farming facility in Gresik, East Java, with total volume of 110 m³ at the optimum shrimp stocking density from the semi-mass trial. Both the semi-mass and industrial trials were performed in five steps: (1) preparation and installation of the RAS and ZWD system components; (2) preparation of microbial components including nitrifying bacteria, the microalgae Chaetoceros muelleri, and the probiotic heterotrophic bacteria Bacillus megaterium; (3) acclimatization of white shrimp post larvae from the salinity level of 32 ppt to 5 ppt; (4) conditioning of the biofilter used in the RAS and shrimp tank (microbial loop manipulation in ZWD); and (5) shrimp grow-out rearing for 84 days and 60 days for the semi-mass trial and the industrial trial, respectively. The hybrid system combined a ZWD system and an RAS. Shrimp tanks were conditioned with the addition of microbial components for ZWD at the beginning of the culture period. The RAS was operated when NH₄⁺ and NO₂⁻-N levels in shrimp culture reached above 1 ppm until the levels decreased to 0–0.5 ppm. The culture performance in the semi-mass trial at 500 PL/m³, 750 PL/m³, and 1,000 PL/m³ stocking densities was not significantly different for final mean body weight (12.06 ± 5.72, 11.84 ± 3.58, 12.04 ± 3.71 g/ind, respectively) and productivity (4.205 ± 0.071, 4.691 ± 0.025, 4.816 ± 0.129 kg/m³, respectively). Significant differences in survival (70 ± 7%, 53 ± 3%, 40 ± 4%, respectively) and feed conversion ratios (1.54 ± 0.01, 1.82 ± 0.00, 2.16 ± 0.03, respectively) were observed between the three different stocking densities. Water quality parameters and microbial loads during the semi-mass trial were similar for all stocking densities and were within the tolerance levels for white shrimp grow-out production. The results of the semi-mass trial showed that the hybrid ZWD-RAS system can maintain water quality and a microbial load up to a 1,000 PL/m³ stocking density; however, the optimum performance based on survival, feed conversion ratio, and productivity was reached at the 500 PL/m³ stocking density. The industrial trial of the application of the hybrid ZWD-RAS system using the optimal stocking density of 500 PL/m³ resulted in a comparable shrimp survival of 78% with a total production of 298 kg shrimp biomass (equal to a productivity level of 2.7 kg/m³). The overall results of both the semi-mass and industrial trials showed that the application of a hybrid ZWD-RAS system allows optimal shrimp survival and growth at the stocking density of 500 PL/m³ and has high potential for application in commercial shrimp grow-out production at low salinity levels.