Participatory research in agroforestry: learning from experience and expanding our repertoire

Participation has been widely touted as “the answer” to a number of problems facing agroforestry research programs. It is not enough, however, to involve rural people as workers and informants in research endeavors defined by outsiders. A truly collaborative approach will depend upon our ability to broaden our definitions of research and participation, to accommodate a wide spectrum of land users and local knowledge, and to expand our repertoire of research methods. This paper presents a critique of facile approaches to participation, outlines a more inclusive framework for who participates on what terms, and reviews a variety of methods that address the complex realities of rural life and landscapes. The final section of the paper suggest a multi-institutional model that combines the complementary strengths of several types of organizations in participatory field research.     

Agroforestry in Nepal: research and practice

Agroforestry research and practice in Nepal is reviewed. The social and ecological complexity of the country is outlined along with some of the methodological problems. The central importance of trees for fodder and areas that they can be planted on farms are discussed. The role of adjacent forest for compost, firewood and tree seedlings is also highlighted. A system containing Nepalese Alder is outlined and assessed as an agroforestry system that is increasingly being adapted in the middle hills of eastern Nepal.     

Agroforestry research in India: a brief review

India's long tradition of agroforestry has been influenced by numerous religious, social, and economic factors. Several indigenous agroforestry systems, based on peoples' needs and site-specific characteristics, have developed over the years. Agroforestry research was initiated in the country about two decades ago; since then, considerable progress has been achieved. The interactions between and among the tree, crop, grass, and animal components have been studied, and several agroforestry technologies have been developed and tried on farmers' lands. Agroforestry research is now conducted under the auspices of the All India Coordinated Agroforestry Research Project of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research at 31 centers distributed over India's tropical and temperate regions. In addition to research, the program includes agroforestry training of farmers, technicians, and scientists at 28 centers throughout the country. Expectations from agroforestry are high in India in both rural and urban areas; these expectations include production benefits that are in harmony with the ecology, environment, traditions, and heritage of the country.     

Agroforestry training and extension: the experience from Haiti

An agroforestry project was funded by the US Agency for International Development and implemented by the Pan American Development Foundation in Haiti from 1981 to 1991. This project is considered by many to be one of the most successful projects of its kind in Haiti, and in the tropics as a whole. Over the ten years of its implementation, the project, referred to in Haitian Creole as Pwoje Pyebwa (Tree Project), evolved from a tree production and planting project to a much broader soil-conservation-based program involving trees. This paper summarizes the training and extension systems that developed during that period. The socioeconomic background studies that were done before the project began, and the flexible, consultative mode of field-team implementation, incorporating elements of the learning process approach, were important to the success of the project. During the implementation of the project, however, concern for farmer input and participation should have been incorporated more systematically into the field operations of the regional teams.     

Agroforestry research and practice in Sri Lanka

A review of agroforestry research and practice in Sri Lanka is provided with emphasis on traditional systems, plantation intercropping, silvopastoral systems, fertility improvement and community approaches. Comments are presented on the potentials and difficulties of each technology along with recommendations for further research and training. Some information on components of a number of agroforestry systems has been collected during the last 8 years. A brief account of the results is presented together with comments on current agroforestry practices.     

Agroforestry research and development in southern Africa during the 1990s: Review and challenges ahead

In light of the large number of empirical studies of agroforestry adoption published during the last decade, we believe it is time to take stock and identify general determinants of agroforestry adoption. In reviewing 120 articles on adoption of agricultural and forestry technology by small holders, we find five categories of factors that explain technology adoption within an economic framework: preferences, resource endowments, market incentives, biophysical factors, and risk and uncertainty. By selecting only empirical analyses that focus on agroforestry and related investments, we narrow our list down to 32 studies primarily from tropical areas. We apply vote-counting based meta-analysis to these studies and evaluate the inclusion and significance of the five adoption factors. Our analysis shows that preferences and resource endowments are the factors most often included in studies. However, adoption behavior is most likely to be significantly influenced by risk, biophysical, and resource factors. In our conclusion, we discuss specific recommendations for the next generation of adoption studies and meta-analyses that include considering a fuller menu of variables, reporting key statistics and marginal probabilities, and conducting weighted meta-regressions.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Agroforestry in the humid lowlands of West Africa: some reflections on future directions for research

Means have to be found for rural people to supply both their own needs and those of the urban dwellers, without further loss of natural resources. Some examples from around the humid tropics suggest that complex agroforests may be able to achieve this goal. In West Africa, the concepts of the cocoa (Theobroma cacao) farm and compound garden, coupled with the domestication of indigenous trees for the production of improved non-timber forest products, need to be developed. There are numerous candidate species both for domestication and for inclusion in multi-strata systems. Research is needed on the development of various forms of multi-strata agroforests, coupled with short-term tree fallows especially to rehabilitate degraded land. More ecologically-oriented studies are required to build sustainable and productive multi-strata agro-ecosystems, while domestication requires greater understanding of the needs of the food and pharmaceutical industries and the development of marketing infrastructures. Incentives are required to promote entreprenurism in rural communities, especially near urban centres. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Forest policy in aroused society: Ukrainian post-Orange Revolution challenges

With the collapse of the communist regime the market changes were introduced in Ukraine, as in other Central and Eastern European Countries, including forestry sector. Reform was not as radical as in other sectors of economy, nor in the forestry sector as in some other countries of region. Ukraine is involved in international forest policy dialogue, particularly Intergovernmental and Pan-European processes of the forest sector development on the principles of sustainability, but implementation of international agreements needs to be sounder in practice.This paper discusses the current situation in forest sector and achievements and failures in economic, environmental, and social aspects of forest sector development. Policy and institutional mechanisms to develop the sustainable forest management (SFM) approaches are discussed. We analyze preconditions for institutional building (legislature, institutions, policy actors) looking at both the existing potential and the constraints in the realization of urgent tasks that arise in the economy in a period of transition. Specific attention is given to the national forest policy conception and forest sector development prospects.     

Silvopastoral research and adoption in Central America: recent findings and recommendations for future directions

Human population growth in Central America during the last thirty years has lead to encroachment of forests for food production and resulted in the replacement of forests with pastureland. Deforestation and degradation of productive soils have prompted researchers to investigate agroforestry as an alternative approach to land management. Silvopastoral systems in particular have been studied and their capacity to augment nutrient cycling, enhance soil processes, supply forage for livestock, and provide habitat for flora and fauna have been documented. Despite conclusive research findings, Central American producers are reluctant to integrate well-researched silvopastoral systems into their farming systems. Thus, it is imperative that researchers investigate the reasons for scant adoption, and that adoption is given precedence. We suggest that adoption research be made a priority on local, national, and regional silvopastoral research agendas. To explore incidence of low adoption, research should identify specific barriers, assess the technology generation process, examine the risks that silvopastoral adoption presents, and evaluate the potential for the integration of silvopastoral technologies on-farm. In addition, we recommend that the future Central American silvopastoral research agenda include the development of a clear understanding of the process of adoption specific to potential silvopastoral adopters in the region. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Agroforestry experimentation: Separating the wood from the trees?

ICRAF has evolved and evaluated experimental approaches to agroforestry problems which will help resercchers reach practical conclusions most cost-effectively in the shortest possible time, and with only limited resources. This has meant looking into the experimental phases needed, developing the conceptual background to research problems which involve the complex spatial/temporal features of agroforestry systems, suggesting and initiating simplified field experimental designs and/or assessment methodologies, and establishing source and reference design materials about agroforestry research for distribution.These four sets of activities are outlined and briefly discussed in relation to some of the key research issues which have emerged.Suitable methods for many areas of experimental agroforestry are rapidly being defined, although some of the more complex issues (e.g. multistrata systems, on-farm research with multipurpose trees and tree/crop mixtures) still need a focused attempt to develop appropriate research methodologies.Head, Research Development Division, ICRAF     

Participatory technology development in agroforestry: methods from a pilot project in Zimbabwe

An on-farm agroforestry pilot project was initiated by the Zimbabwe Forestry Commission in 1988. The main objective of the project is to investigate a range of options to solve problems of woodland depletion faced by small-scale farmers. This paper describes the first two years of on-farm experimentation. The first season's trials are described, and the rationale for moving towards an approach of greater farmer participation in the research process is given. Steps taken to promote experimental tree planting on farms are described, and methods used are illustrated by examples from the project. Critical awareness-raising techniques, steamming from Freirian philosophy, have been central to the methods. The need for a partnership between formal and informal farmer-based research is discussed, as is a model for agroforestry research and development. The latter is proposed in a way that formal research develops the components of agroforestry practices, whilst farmers are encouraged to experiment with a combination of these components in order to develop practices appropriate to local conditions.     

Integrating science and policy development: case of the national research council and US national policy focused on non-federal forests

Policy development is a sequence of political events, each of which is improved with information resulting from scientific inquiry. Science can help identify important issues, broaden the range of policy options, clarify relationships between objectives and policies, and identify risk and uncertainty associated with policies. The National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences reviewed the scientific basis for federal policies focused on non-federal forests (200 000 000 ha) in the United States. The science review resulted in seven broad recommendations for national action. In retrospect, the review demonstrated that complex administrative issues challenge science, discipline orientation of science often detracts from effective policy development, conflicting scientific evidence can complicate policy decisions, scientific models often suggest more certainty to policy development than actually exists, partisan driven science frequently confuses policy development, and scientific information can conflict with the political necessity to agree on a policy.     

Agroforestry performance on small farms in Amazonia: Findings from the Rondonia Agroforestry Pilot Project

Experiences from not only ‘success stories’ but also ‘failed’ agroforestry projects provide potentially useful lessons for future agroforestry-project designers. Experimental one-hectare agroforestry plots were established on 50 small-scale farms in the western Brazilian Amazon State of Rondonia from 1993 to 1995. Drawing from a menu of 25 different species (10 tropical hardwoods and softwoods and 15 fruits and palms), this species trial shows encouraging survival and growth performance for most species under wide ranging plot management regimes. Tropical hardwood survival rates (after 18 months) ranged from 65% for Cerejeira (Torresea acreana) to 88% for mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla). Survival rates for commercial fruit and palm species were even higher. A comparison of attributes of two sub-groups (successful and unsuccessful planters) suggests that previous experience with perennial monocultural cropping, greater social participation, land use history, and soil chemistry are positively associated with successful agroforestry species performance, while no significant differences exist between successful and unsuccessful planters in household size, area deforested, area in pasture, and land tenure security. A closer analysis of ‘failed’ agroforestry plots indicates the primary importance of social factors originating at the household-level (e.g. inadequate plot maintenance, improper planting techniques, illness, etc.). Twelve different causes of plot failure were cited, falling into three classes. Of the total number of reasons given for plot failure, household level factors represented 54% of all causes cited. Project design and implementation factors (inappropriate plot design, defective planting material, etc.) were cited 25% of the times and environmental factors (soil fertility constraints and pasture grass invasion) were cited 21% of the times. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Innovative use of forest policy instruments in countries with economies in transition: experience of the Baltic States

Policy tools form one of the key components in the forest policy process. The main objective of this paper was to highlight national innovations in application of forest policy tools, and in doing so, to present national decision-makers with a broader variety of instruments available for solving issues of concern in the national forest sectors. This study at a general level of classification found almost no differences between the sets of policy instruments used in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. However, analysis of individual elements comprising each forest policy tool led to the identification of some national peculiarities. Based on the differences in application of elements of individual policy tools, innovative approaches in individual countries were provided.     

The role of extension in agroforestry development: evidence from western Kenya

The extension strategy used by the CARE International in Kenya Agroforestry Extension Project (AEP) is described. This strategy is evaluated in terms of documented changes in farmer's agroforestry practices and the importance of AEP relative to other changes in economic incentives, institutional support, and land use and tenure rules for agroforestry. The project served mainly to increase awareness of the multipurpose potential of agroforestry, expand available technical options, and strengthen local institutions. Its community-based extension approach was more suitable for local conditions than commodity-based, training-and-visit, farming systems, or media-based extension. Projects are encouraged to tailor extension design to local circumstances, use community participation to guide extension priorities, and use extensionists as catalysts and information brokers.Research undertaken while the author was a Principal Scientist at the International Council for Research in Agroforestry, Nairobi, Kenya.     

中国外来物种入侵的现状、对策及新的研究方向

目前,全球大部分地区都遭受到了外来生物入侵的威胁,危害程度也越来越严重。本文阐述了外来生物入侵形成的原因,入侵所造成的危害,总结了外来生物入侵的防治对策,并探讨了新的研究方向。     

Using the Delphi method for determining criteria in agroforestry research planning in developing countries

Planning agroforestry research programs requires the participation of people from many disciplines. They may have different interests in allocating financial resources for research purposes and, therefore, the decision-making is complex. Guidelines are needed to improve the decision-making process. Such guidelines may include a list of weighted criteria identified by experts through group processes. This study used a qualitative approach (the Delphi method) to identify criteria to be used when planning agroforestry research programs in the developing countries. The panel of respondents was comprised of agroforestry experts who have experience and expertise in the developing countries. Fourteen (14) criteria were identified in questionnaire 1. These criteria were ranked in questionnaires 2 and 3. A Friedman test of analysis of variance followed by a Mann-Whitney U test of pairwise comparison produced four groups of criteria: group 1, the most highly ranked, comprises local people's needs, sustainability, adoptability and research quality; group 2 includes existing systems and economic criteria; group 3 encompasses biophysical effects, institutional capabilities, partnership and transferability; and group 4, the least ranked, includes diversity of products, tree/crop interface, flexibility and species selection. A Kruskal-Wallis test on each criterion and several respondent characteristics showed that the respondent characteristics of current work, highest degree held, ecosystem experience, geographic area of experience, and number of years experience influenced respondent criteria rankings. The test was not significant for background and respondent origin characteristics.     

From research to communication in agroforestry: Some insights from the MAB Programme

Attempts within the Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme of Unesco to produce research findings and information materials useful for education and training in agroforestry are outlined. Three different field projects — one in the humid tropics of Mexico, another in an urban situation in Papua New Guinea, the third in the arid zones of northern Kenya — provide examples of the types of educational materials and training activities that can be integrated within field research projects. Lessons learned in the preparation of a poster-exhibit ‘Ecology in Action’, and their possible relevance to the development of programmes in agroforestry education, are described.