Prediction of Parturition Time in Queens using Radiography and Ultrasonography

This study investigated the prediction of parturition in queens, as well as the effects of the queens' age and weight and the litter size on the accuracy of the prediction. A prospective study was performed in 24 purebred queens of 11 different breeds, all in normal body condition, using radiographic and ultrasonographic measurements of foetal femoral length (FL) and biparietal diameter (BPD) of f?tal skull that apply to different breeds. Pregnant queens with aborted or malformed foetuses were excluded. The examinations were performed up to three times during the second half of pregnancy; litter size was obtained with radiography, and FL and BPD measurements were taken of each foetus using both radiography and ultrasonography. The maximal FL and the transversal BPD were recorded for each foetus. Radiography showed the number of foetuses accurately but did not allow accurate prediction of time of parturition. However, ultrasonography did establish the best predictive model according to the data with the FL. This model corresponded to the formula Y = 37.864 ? 0.193 × FL + 1.227 × W ? 0.615 × LS ? 0.832 × A using the FL (10^?1 mm), litter size (LS, number of foetuses per queen) and maternal parameters (weight (W, kg) and age (A, years)). Time to parturition correlated positively with the queen's weight and negatively with her age (P < 0.01). The ultrasonographic FL associated with pregnancy and maternal factors appeared to be an accurate model to predict parturition .     

Ultrasonographic assessment of liver dimensions in dairy cows with different hepatic triacylglycerol content

The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between hepatic triacylglycerol content (TAG) and hepatic size and shape assessed by transcutaneous ultrasonography in dairy cows. In a second part, the usefulness of ultrasonographic measurements pertaining to the size and shape of the liver for the diagnosis of fatty liver was evaluated. Transcutaneous ultrasonographic examination of the liver was carried out in 133 German Holstein cows (BW: 578 ± 6?kg; age: 5 ± 0.2?yr; withers height: 145 ± 0.3?cm). The size of the liver, angle of the ventral liver margin, and thickness of the liver over the portal vein and caudal vena cava were measured in the 10th and 11th intercostal spaces via ultrasonography. As the gold standard, TAG was determined enzymatically in liver biopsies. Hepatic TAG ranged from 5 to 292?mg/g of liver fresh weight (FW). Cows were allocated to 4 groups according to their hepatic TAG content (TAG ≥150?mg/g of FW, n = 32; ≥100?to?150?mg/g of FW, n = 34; ≥50?to?100?mg/g of FW, n = 38; <50?mg/g of FW, n = 29). Weak to moderate correlations (r = 0.26?to 0.49) between the ultrasonographic liver measurements and hepatic TAG indicated an increased size and angle of the liver with increasing hepatic fat accumulation. All mean liver ultrasonographic measurements revealed differences between TAG classes (P < 0.001), with the greatest values in cows with hepatic TAG concentrations ≥150?mg/g of FW. Stepwise multiple linear regression for hepatic TAG prediction (r(2) = 0.34, P < 0.001) and stepwise discriminant analysis used only ultrasonographic measurements obtained via the 10th?intercostal space and age. Regression analysis revealed that TAG prediction widely overestimated measured TAG in the low TAG range and underestimated TAG in the high TAG range. The sensitivity and specificity based on discriminant analysis for differentiation of the TAG groups were 0.61 and 0.61 (<50?vs. ≥50?mg/g of FW), 0.67 and 0.71 (<50?vs. ≥100?mg/g of FW), 0.83 and 0.82 (<50?vs. ≥150?mg/g of FW), 0.70 and 0.77 (<100?vs. ≥100?mg/g of FW), and 0.83 and 0.85 (<100?vs. ≥150?mg/g of FW), respectively. Results revealed that with a hepatic TAG content of approximately 100?mg/g of FW, the liver increased in size and its margins became rounded. Pronounced increases in the size and thickness of the liver and in the angle of the liver occurred only in cows with very severe fatty liver (TAG ≥150?mg/g of FW). However, the determination of ultrasonographic measurements of liver size and shape appeared to be of limited diagnostic value in the recognition of fatty liver because of increased interindividual variance in dairy cows.     

Effect of Pregnancy and Foetal Number on Diameter of Corpus Luteum,Maternal Progesterone Concentration and Oxidant/Antioxidant Balance in Ewes

The aim of this study was to determine the changes in diameter of corpus luteum (CL), maternal progesterone (P) concentration, lipid peroxidation and non‐enzymatic antioxidant levels along with enzymatic antioxidant activities in pregnant ewes bearing single and twin foetuses. The ewes were selected from healthy animals that were brought to the abattoir for slaughtering. The ewes were divided into three groups: Group 1 (non‐pregnant, non‐oestrous, n = 30), Group 2 (pregnant bearing a single foetus, n = 30) and Group 3 (pregnant bearing twin foetuses, n = 12) after they were slaughtered. Pregnant ewes were in the first half of the pregnancy. The diameter of CL and P concentration of pregnant ewes bearing a single foetus or twin foetuses were found higher than that found in non‐pregnant ewes. Similarly, the P concentration of pregnant ewes bearing twin foetuses was higher than that found in pregnant ewes bearing a single foetus. Malondialdehyde (MDA) level in pregnant ewes bearing twin foetuses was higher than that found in both non‐pregnant and pregnant ewes bearing a single foetus. The serum glutathione (GSH) level and glutathione‐peroxidase (GSH‐Px) activity of pregnant ewes bearing twin foetuses were found lower than that found in non‐pregnant ewes. Additionally, the GSH‐Px activity of pregnant ewes bearing twin foetuses was found lower than that found in pregnant ewes bearing a single foetus. No significant difference was found between pregnant ewes bearing female and male foetus with respect to diameter of CL, P concentration and oxidative stress parameters. There were significant positive correlations between foetal number (0, 1, 2) and diameter of CL, P concentration, MDA level, and between P concentration and diameter of CL, MDA level. However, significant negative correlations were found between foetal number (0, 1, 2) and GSH level, GSH‐Px activity, and between P concentration and GSH‐Px activity. In conclusion, the diameter of CL enlarges, P production increases and oxidant/antioxidant balance impairs because of the gestation stress in ewes during pregnancy.     

Milk yield and composition, nutrition, body conformation traits, body condition scores, fertility and diseases in high-yielding dairy cows--Part 1

Twenty-nine pairs of high-yielding dairy cows (HC; > or = 45 kg/day reached at least once during lactation) and corresponding control cows (CC; with milk yields representing the average yield of the herds) were examined on 29 Swiss farms from March 1995 to September 1996. The hypotheses were tested that there are differences in feed intake, body-conformation traits, body weight (BW), body condition score (BCS), fertility status and disease incidence between HC and CC cows. Cows were studied 2 weeks before and at 5, 9, 13, 17 and 40 weeks post-partum. HC cows produced more energy-corrected milk (ECM) than CC cows (10,670 +/- 321 kg in 293 +/- 5 days and 8385 +/- 283 kg in 294 +/- 4 days, respectively; P < or = 0.001) and yields in the first 100 days of lactation were greater in HC than in CC cows (46.2 +/- 1.1 and 36.2 +/- 1.0 kg ECM/day, respectively; P < or = 0.001). Concentrate intake was greater (P < or = 0.05) in HC than in CC cows (7.6 +/- 0.5 and 5.7 +/- 0.5 kg/day, respectively) and dry matter intakes (measured in week 5 of lactation over 3 days on six farms) were greater in HC than in CC cows (24.0 +/- 1.1 and 20.3 +/- 1.1 kg/day, respectively; P < or = 0.001). HC cows were taller than CC cows (wither heights 143.3 +/- 0.8 and 140.1 +/- 0.8 cm, respectively; P < or = 0.01). Although BW in HC cows was greater than in CC cows throughout the study, differences and decreases of BW during lactation were not significant. BCS at the end of pregnancy and decrements during lactation were similar in HC and CC cows. Fertility parameters were similar in HC and CC cows. Incidences of mastitis, claw and feet problems, hypocalcemia/downer cow syndrome, ovarian cysts and abortions were similar in HC and CC cows, but there were more indigestion problems in HC than in CC cows.     

Magnetic resonance imaging, ultrasonography and histology of the suspensory ligament origin: a comparative study of normal anatomy of warmblood horses

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: The diagnosis of lameness caused by proximal metacarpal and metatarsal pain can be challenging. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) offers the possibility for further diagnosis but there have been no studies on the normal MRI appearance of the origin of the suspensory ligament (OSL) in conjunction with ultrasonography and histology. OBJECTIVES: To describe the MRI appearance of the OSL in fore- and hindlimbs of sound horses and compare it to the ultrasonographic and histological appearance. The findings can be used as reference values to recognise pathology in the OSL. METHODS: The OSL in the fore- and hindlimbs of 6 sound horses was examined by ultrasonography prior to death, and MRI and histology post mortem. Qualitative evaluation and morphometry of the OSL were performed and results of all modalities compared. RESULTS: Muscular tissue, artefacts, variable SL size and shape complicated ultrasonographic interpretation. In MRI and histology the forelimb OSL consisted of 2 portions, the lateral being significantly thicker than medial. The hindlimb SL had a single large area of origin. In fore- and hindlimbs, the amount of muscular tissue was significantly larger laterally than medially. Overall SL measurements using MRI were significantly higher than using histology and ultrasonography and histological higher than ultrasonographic measurements. Morphologically, there was a good correlation between MRI and histology. CONCLUSIONS: MRI provides more detailed information than ultrasonography regarding muscle fibre detection and OSL dimension and correlates morphologically well with histology. Therefore, ultrasonographic results should be regarded with caution. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: MRI may be a diagnostic aid when other modalities fail to identify clearly the cause of proximal metacarpal and metatarsal pain; and may improve selection of adequate therapy and prognosis for injuries in this region.     

Effect of compensatory growth on forms of glycogen, postmortem proteolysis, and meat quality in pigs

The current experiment was designed to examine if a compensatory feed regimen influenced storage of glycogen forms, activity of proteolytic systems, and meat quality. Female pigs (Large White × Landrace × Duroc cross) with an initial age of 74 d were allocated to 6 feeding treatment groups (n=8 for each group). Groups then consumed feed ad libitum for 40 (A40), 42 (A42), or 82 d (A82). The compensatory growth groups were fed 0.70 of ad libitum intake for 40 d (R40) followed by refeeding for ad libitum intake for 2 (R40A2) or 42 d (R40A42). Pigs were slaughtered at the end of the restriction period (SL1), then after refeeding for 2 (SL2) and 42 d (SL3). The feeding regimen caused restricted animals at SL2 to have a decreased BW (P=0.039), with the refed animals undergoing compensatory growth by SL3 so BW was not different (P=0.829). At SL1 there was a trend for the R40 pigs to have less intramuscular fat than A40 (P=0.084). There was a trend for macroglycogen (MG; P=0.051) and a significant effect for proglycogen (ProG; P=0.014) to be greater at slaughter in R40 than A40, along with a greater postmortem decline in both MG (P=0.033) and ProG (P=0.022) over the first 2 h in R40, which was associated with the R40 having a lower pH at 24 h postmortem (P=0.043). After refeeding for 2 d (SL2), only MG of R40A2 was greater (P=0.030) than A42 and had a trend for a greater difference of decline at 24 h postmortem (P=0.091), which was associated with lower pH at 24 h (P=0.012). The data suggest that the concentrations of ProG are more labile and recovered to the concentrations of pigs fed for ad libitum intake sooner than MG. After full compensation in SL3, there was no difference for MG content (at 0 h, P=0.721; at 2 h, P=0.987; at 24 h, P=0.343), ProG content (at 0 h, P=0.879; at 2 h, P=0.946; at 24 h, P=0.459), and muscle pH (at 45 min, P=0.373; at 24 h, P=0.226). At all slaughter points, there was no difference in shear force (at SL1, P=0.101; at SL2, P=0.420; at SL3, P=0.167). There were no significant effects of the feeding regimen on micro- and milli-calpain large subunit gene expression (for micro-calpain at SL1, P=0.450; at SL2, P=0.171; at SL3, P=0.281; for milli-calpain at SL1, P=0.666; at SL2, P=0.123; at SL3, P=0.617) or the activity of the 2 proteolytic enzymes at any of the slaughter dates (for micro-calpain at SL1, P=0.238; at SL2, P =0.238; at SL3, P=0.222; for milli-calpain at SL1, P=0.296; at SL2, P=0.230; at SL3, P=0.615). In R40 there was a trend (P=0.070) for greater gene expression of caspase 3, whereas in R40A2 the increase was significant (P=0.009) relative to pigs consuming feed ad libitum. However, gene expression of the E3 ligase, MuRF1, at SL3 was less in R40A42 (P=0.019). Although compensatory growth does appear to influence the expression of various proteolytic systems, the changes do not appear to be associated with meat quality as measured by shear force.     

Are foetal ultrasonographic and maternal blood progesterone measurements near parturition reliable predictors of the time of birth in the domestic cat?

In cats, accuracy of parturition day prediction by ultrasonographic measurement of foetal structures is decreasing towards the end of gestation. Foetal measurements during the last days of pregnancy are scarce. We determined foetal biparietal, abdominal and eye diameter (BPD, AD and ED, respectively) by ultrasonography as well as maternal blood progesterone (P4) within five days of delivery to predict parturition date and calculate accuracy of prediction. Foetal BPD at birth was compared with newborn kitten head diameter (HD). Kitten HD, crown‐rump length (CRL) and body weight were compared by breed and gender. Ultrasonography measurements were carried out on the day of parturition in 14 queens, and on days 62–63 after the first mating and repeated 24–72 hr later in ten other cats. Accuracy of parturition day prediction using BPD and AD was determined based on the equations of Beccaglia et al. (2008) Veterinary Research Communications, 32(Suppl 1), S99 and Garcia Mitacek et al. (2015) Theriogenology, 84, 1131. Progesterone was measured at the time of presentation and repeated 24–72 hr later if parturition did not occur. Data were analysed with linear regression, t test, Mann–Whitney U test, one‐way anova and Kruskal–Wallis test. There was a moderate relationship between BPD, days before birth (DBB) and litter size. AD and DBB had a low agreement, and ED was not associated with DBB. BPD at birth was significantly related to HD. The accuracy of parturition day prediction using BPD and AD was 27–53% and 17–35%, respectively. Kitten HD was associated with body weight, and both were inversely related to litter size. Newborn biometric measurements differed by breed but not by gender. Progesterone decreased towards parturition and reached 3.18 ± 1.68 ng/ml on the day of delivery. In conclusion, close to birth, the combination of foetal ultrasonography and maternal blood P4 rather than each as a sole predictor of parturition is recommended.     

Ultrasonographic anatomy of the bovine eye.

The purposes of the study were to describe the ultrasonographic appearance and measurements of the normal bovine eye, to compare the measurements to those reported previously for cadaveric eyes and to describe differences between ocular dimensions of Holstein Friesian and Jersey cattle. Sixty transpalpebral ocular ultrasonographic examinations were performed on 30 adult Holstein Friesian cows, and 16 examinations were performed on 8 adult Jersey cows. Transpalpebral ultrasonographic images were obtained with a 10 MHz linear transducer in both horizontal and vertical imaging planes. The ultrasonographic appearance of structures within the bovine eye is similar to that in other species, although the ciliary artery was frequently identified, appearing as a 0.33 +/- 0.04 cm diameter hypoechoic area. The axial length of the globe was significantly greater in Holstein Friesian cattle (3.46 +/- 0.09 cm) compared with Jersey cattle (3.27 +/- 0.19 cm; P = 0.001), although the vitreous depth was smaller in Holstein Friesian cattle (1.46 +/- 0.09 cm) (P = 0.0009). The anterioposterior depth of the lens was significantly greater in Jersey cattle (1.92 +/- 0.11 cm) and the cornea was thinner in Jersey cattle (0.17 +/- 0.02 cm). The appearance and ocular distances for live animals were similar to those reported previously for cadaveric specimens. The knowledge of normal ocular dimensions facilitates the use of ultrasonography in the evaluation of ocular disease in cattle.     

Detailed ultrasonographic mapping of the pelvis in clinically normal horses and ponies.

OBJECTIVE: To map the equine pelvis using ultrasonography, validated by use of computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and measurements of frozen cadaver slices. ANIMALS: 6 ponies and 6 horses. PROCEDURE: Ultrasonographic examination of the pelvis was performed on 6 clinically normal ponies. Measurements were obtained for imaged structures. Computed tomography, MRI, and measurements of frozen sections were performed after death and used to verify measurements. Linear regression determined the degree of correlation between measurements obtained ultrasonographically and the other modalities. Six clinically normal horses were then examined by use of ultrasonography. For each structure measured mean, SD, and range were calculated. RESULTS: Data obtained from ponies revealed high correlations between ultrasonographic findings and those of CT, MRI, and frozen section measurements (r2 = 0.97, r2 = 0.99, and r2 = 0.99, respectively). Differences between structures measured on each side of the pelvis were not significant. Variation in size of structures was not associated with weight of horses. A correlation was not found between weight of horses and ponies and size of structure. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Ultrasonography can be used to accurately measure and evaluate the musculoskeletal structures of the pelvis of horses. The use of CT, MRI, and measurements of frozen sections provided a means of validating the ultrasonographic measurements. Reference range values determined in our study can be used to evaluate horses with suspected pelvic disease.     

Measurements of the bodyweight and other physical characteristics of 11 llamas (Lama glama) from birth to weaning

The bodyweight (bw), thoracic circumference, length and height of 11 llamas were recorded weekly from birth for 27 weeks. Their mean (sd) birth weight was 11.60 (2.35) kg and their weight increased in curvilinear fashion reaching 61.05 (13.75) kg after 27 weeks. Their average daily gains reached the highest value three weeks after birth and then decreased, reaching the lowest value of 262 g per day at 27 weeks. On a metabolic bw(0.83) basis, the growth of the llamas when their dams were at peak lactation was comparable with that of calves, fawns and lambs. All the measurements were significantly affected by the age, but not by the sex of the young or the parity of the dam. The regression models chosen to predict the bodyweight and weight gain of the llamas yielded R(2) ranging from 0.97 to 0.99. Correlations between bodyweight and other single body measurements were between r=0.68 and 0.77. Single or combined body measurements were good predictors of bodyweight, but additional body measurements added little to the already good fit provided by a single measurement (R(2) ranging from 0.93 to 0.98). The thoracic circumference (R(2)=0.98) and length (R(2)=0.96) were good predictors of the bodyweight of the llamas between birth and 27 weeks old.     

Within- and between-examiner agreement for two thyroid palpation techniques in healthy and hyperthyroid cats

Thyroid gland palpation is an important aid for diagnosing feline hyperthyroidism in an early stage to prevent development of deleterious complications. Our objectives were to assess within- and between-examiner agreement for two thyroid gland palpation techniques in cats and to correlate palpation results with ultrasonographic thyroid measurements. Nine client-owned hyperthyroid (12.6 +/- 2.4 years) and 10 healthy control cats (7.4 +/- 5.4 years) entered this prospective study. Both thyroid glands of all cats were palpated twice by three blindfolded clinicians with the classic palpation technique [technique 1 (T1)] and the technique described by Norsworthy GD, Adams VJ, McElhaney MR, Milios JA [(2002a) Relationship between semi-quantitative thyroid palpation and total thyroxine concentration in cats with and without hyperthyroidism. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery 4, 139-143] [technique 2 (T2)]. A semi-quantitative score from 1 to 6 was assigned to the gland size. After clipping of the ventral cervical region, another palpation session followed by ultrasonography of the thyroid glands was performed. Average weighted kappa-values within- and between-examiners were 0.864 and 0.644 for T1 and 0.732 and 0.532 for T2. T1 did lead to significantly smaller within- (P=0.007) and between-examiner (P=0.048) differences than T2. Significant correlation coefficients (P<0.001) between the palpation scores of both techniques and ultrasonographic thyroid lobe length (T1: 0.43; T2: 0.38) were observed. No significant difference before and after clipping was found (T1: P=0.503; T2: P=0.607). The first time that all cats were palpated by either technique, significant score differences between control and hyperthyroid cats were observed both for T1 (P=0.002) and T2 (P=0.003). Both feline thyroid gland palpation techniques have good within- and between-examiner agreements. Based on this study, the classic palpation technique is preferred.     

Foetal Growth in the Reindeer

In connection with reindeer, slaughter 348 foetuses were collected at different foetal developmental stages and studied together with 20 full-term newborn calves with respect to weight, crown-rump length, metacarpal bone length and appearance of ossification foci. On the basis of these measurements polynomial growth curves were constructed. Weight gain was most rapid during the last trimester of gestation, but total and metacarpal bone length gain showed only minor acceleration towards the end of pregnancy. Ossification was apparent at an age of about 6 weeks. Undernutrition during late winter was observed to retard the foetal growth.     

Foetal cross-protection experiments between type 1 and type 2 bovine viral diarrhoea virus in pregnant ewes

A flock of 82 non-pregnant ewes was split into three immunisation groups and given an intranasal dose of either cell culture medium, or a type 1 or a type 2 bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV-1 or BVDV-2). Two months later the flock was reconstituted and after a further three weeks, the ewes were bred to pestivirus negative rams after synchronisation of oestrus using progesterone sponges. Fifty-five ewes were segregated into three challenge groups, each of which comprised ewes from different immunisation groups. At 7 weeks gestation, one challenge group was given an intranasal dose of cell culture medium, whilst the other two were given intranasal doses of either BVDV-1 or BVDV-2, using the same inocula as for the immunisations. Three weeks later, the ewes were killed and their foetuses tested for the presence of BVDV-1 and BVDV-2. The results showed that immunisation of six ewes without subsequent challenge did not lead to infection of any of their 11 foetuses. Challenge with BVDV-1 or BVDV-2 in the absence of immunisation lead to 15 out of 15 or 11 out of 14 foetuses becoming infected, respectively. Immunisation with the homologous virus to that used for challenge resulted in complete protection of 32 foetuses from 15 ewes. Heterologous protection was one way. All 12 foetuses from ewes immunised with BVDV-1 were protected from challenge with BVDV-2, whereas 18 foetuses from ewes immunised with BVDV-2 were all infected after challenge with BVDV-1. This provides evidence that a recent exposure to infection with one pestivirus does not necessarily induce foetal protection against another. The one-way result suggests that factors other than antigenic differences are involved in cross-protection.     

EFFECT OF ULTRASOUND BEAM ANGLE ON EQUINE ARTICULAR CARTILAGE THICKNESS MEASUREMENT

The purpose of this study was to determine if variation in the ultrasound beam angle would affect cartilage thickness measurement performed with B-mode ultrasonography. Transverse sections of six fresh equine middle phalanges were obtained from necropsy. Ultrasonographic images of the proximal articular cartilage were obtained in a water bath, in a plane parallel and adjacent to the section plane using a 5-10 MHz linear transducer. Static images were acquired for all six bone specimens with an ultrasound beam angle of 0 degree, 30 degrees, 45 degrees, and 60 degrees. Proximal articular cartilage thickness was measured on ultrasonographic images and on the bone specimen at the same level. A linear mixed-effects model was used to compare articular cartilage thickness measured on specimen and on ultrasonographic images using different ultrasound beam angle. Mean +/- SD cartilage thickness was 1.82 +/- 0.35 mm on bone specimens, 1.72 +/- 0.29 with a 0 degrees angle, 1.99 +/- 0.34 with 30 degrees, 2.06 +/- 0.34 with 45 degrees, and 2.3 +/- 0.38 with 60 degrees. There was a significant difference between macroscopic measurements and ultrasonographic measurements performed with ultrasound angles at 30 degrees, 45 degrees, and 60 degrees. There was a significant increase in cartilage thickness when the ultrasound beam angle decreased (P = 0.0157; R2 = 0.969). Cartilage thickeness measured on ultrasonographic images varies with the ultrasound beam angle and may not be accurate because ultrasound speed in cartilage may be different than the speed used by the ultrasonographic unit for distance calculation.     

Effects of supplementing low‐quality roughages with tree foliages on digestibility,nitrogen utilization and rumen characteristics in sheep: a meta‐analysis

Thirty‐six published studies containing 219 treatment means and 1069 sheep were included in the dataset for meta‐analysis to elucidate responses of foliage supplementation on digestibility, nitrogen balance and rumen parameters. Major predictive variables were percentages of foliages in diets (FL), crude protein (CP) in foliages (FCP), NDF in foliages (FNDF), NDF in basal forages (BNDF), CP in basal forages (BCP), CP in total diets (DCP) and foliage CP intake (FCPI). Organic matter digestibility increased linearly (p = 0.10) with increasing FL, but responded quadratically to DCP (p = 0.021) and BCP (p < 0.001), with maximal OM digestibility occurred at 14.6% of CP in diets (R² = 0.12). The digestibility of CP was affected by FL (p = 0.01), FCPI (p < 0.026), FCP (p < 0.001), FNDF (p < 0.001) and DCP (p < 0.032) positively and quadratically, and maximal response was at 14.1% DCP (p < 0.001), 51% FL (p < 0.001), 29% FCP (p < 0.001) and FCPI of 122 g/day (p < 0.001). The digestibility of NDF increased quadratically (p = 0.09) with increasing FL, peaking at 16% foliage levels, decreased quadratically (p = 0.001) with increasing FNDF and decreased linearly (p = 0.048) with increasing FCPI. Digestible OM and CP intakes were the highest at 37.2% and 42.1% FL, respectively. Fecal N excretion increased linearly with increasing FL (p < 0.001) and DCP (p < 0.001, R² = 0.66). However, FCPI (p = 0.082), FCP (p = 0.003) and BCP (p < 0.001) affected fecal N excretion positively and quadratically. Urinary N excretion increased linearly (p < 0.001) with increasing FL (R² = 0.45), FCPI (R² = 0.79), FCP (R² = 0.51), BCP (R² = 0.72) and DCP (R² = 0.77). Rumen NH₃ concentration was affected positively and quadratically (p = 0.023) by FL with a peak rumen NH₃ level of 160 mg/l at 17.3% FL. However, rumen NH₃ concentration (mg/l) increased linearly with increasing FCP (p = 0.001), FCPI (p = 0.01) and DCP (p < 0.001). In conclusion, catalytic foliage supplementation at low levels, preferably, at 16% may enhance nutrient utilization, while foliage levels up to 42% may result greater performance of sheep fed on low‐quality roughages.     

Ultrasonic assessment of puerperal uterine involution in Balady goats

Twenty-six postpartum Balady goats (primiparous, n=13; pluriparous, n=13) were used in this study. One animal of each group was slaughtered on postpartum days 1, 2, 4, 7, 10, 13, 19 and 25; in addition, three control nulliparous goats were slaughtered, and the genital tracts collected. Progress of uterine involution was monitored by repeated ultrasonographic measurements in live animals (primiparous n=6; pluriparous n=6) and measurement of the outer circumference of the uterine horns of slaughtered animals (primiparous n=8; pluriparous n=8). A consistent and progressive decrease in ultrasonographic and outer circumference measurements was found, although faster during the first 7 days postpartum than between days 7 and 19 postpartum. Uterine involution, assessed by the upper limit of the measurements in the nulliparous goats, followed a quadratic pattern and was completed by day 19 postpartum. Ultrasonographically, two elliptical-circular echogenic areas separated by an anechoic line of the stratum vascularis were depicted. Regressing caruncles and fluid in uterine lumen were recognized during the first week postpartum. Further analysis revealed a highly positive correlation between the outer circumference and ultrasonographic measurements. In conclusion, uterine involution in Balady goats was completed by day 19 postpartum and was unrelated to parity. The close association between ultrasound findings and macroscopic involution indicated that ultrasonography can dependably be used to monitor uterine involution under field conditions and can be a suitable alternative to animal slaughter for the study of uterine involution.     

Degree of amino acid restrictions during the grower phase and compensatory growth in pigs selected for lean growth efficiency

A total of 32 select line (SL) and 32 control line (CL) Duroc pigs were used in two trials to determine the effect of dietary amino acid contents during the grower (G) phase and selection for lean growth efficiency on growth performance, carcass traits, and meat quality. In each trial, pigs weighing 20 kg were assigned to 16 pens with two gilts or two castrated males per pen, and pens were randomly assigned within the genetic line to corn-soybean meal G diets formulated to contain 5.0, 7.0, 9.0, or 11.0 g lysine/kg. After 50 kg, all pigs were fed common finisher 1 (F1) and finisher 2 (F2) diets. Pigs were allowed ad libitum access to feed and water. After the initial statistical analyses, the data sets from the two trials were combined. During the G phase, pigs consumed less feed [linear (Ln), P < 0.001] and more lysine (Ln, P < 0.001), grew faster (Ln, P < 0.05) but utilized feed more and lysine less efficiently (Ln, P < 0.001) for weight gain as the amino acid content of G diets increased. Increasing dietary amino acids resulted in less ultrasound backfat (Ln, P < 0.001) and more serum urea nitrogen [Ln, P < 0.001; quadratic (Qd), P < 0.01] at the end of the G phase. Pigs grew more slowly during the F1 (Ln, P < 0.01 and Qd, P = 0.05) and F2 (Ln, P = 0.07) phases and utilized feed and lysine less efficiently (Ln, P < 0.05) for weight gain during the F1 phase as the amino acid content of G diets increased. The grower diet had no effect on overall weight gain and feed efficiency, carcass traits, or meat quality scores. The efficiency of lysine utilization for overall weight gain (Ln, P < 0.001) and lean accretion (Ln, P < 0.05) improved as the amino acid content of G diets decreased. The SL pigs grew faster (P < 0.05) and had less (P < 0.001) ultrasound backfat throughout the study compared with the CL pigs. The SL pigs had less 10th rib backfat (P < 0.001) and tended to have larger longissimus muscle area (P = 0.09) than the CL pigs, which were reflected in greater rate (P < 0.001) and efficiency (P < 0.05) of lean accretion. Marbling (P < 0.05) and meat color (P = 0.07) scores were lower in the SL pigs. No grower diet x genotype interactions were observed in response criteria of interest. The results indicate that pigs subjected to dietary amino acid restrictions during the G phase (as low as 5.0 g lysine/kg) compensated completely in terms of growth rate and body composition regardless of the genotype. Compensatory growth can have a positive impact not only on the overall efficiency of pig production but also on the environment by reducing excretion of unused nutrients.     

Ultrasonographic and echobiometric findings in the eyes of Saanen goats of different ages

Objective  To determine ultrasonographic and echobiometric findings in the eyes of goats of different ages. B and A mode ultrasonography was performed in 55 healthy Saanen goats (110 eyes) of ages 45 ( n  =   15), 180 ( n  =   20), and 549 days ( n  =   20).
Procedures  Transcorneal ultrasonography was performed after instillation of a topical anesthetic and application of acoustic transmission gel on the 20-MHz linear transducer tip. The transducer was placed in a longitudinal position until optimal B scan images, according to echoes of A mode images, were obtained. Statistical analysis was carried out to compare the echobiometric readings among subjects ( P  <   0.05).
Results  The aqueous and vitreous humors of the goats, as well as the lens cortices and nuclei, appeared anechoic. The cornea, anterior and posterior lens capsule, sclera, and iris appeared hyperechoic and generated peaks on the A mode. Ocular measurements between the right and left eyes, as well as between male and female goats were not significantly different among subjects of the same age ( P  =   1.00). All dimensions evaluated increased significantly with age ( P  <   0.01).
Conclusions  The ultrasonographic appearances of goat eyes were very similar to those of other animal species. The cornea, anterior chamber, lens, vitreous chamber, and axial globe length increased with age in the Saanen breed of goats. Knowledge of the normal appearance and ocular dimensions of goat eyes facilitates the use of ultrasonography in the evaluation of ocular disease in Saanen goats.     

Ultrasonography and progesterone concentration at a single time point for the detection of puberty in dairy heifers

Data were available from 1657 heifers across 48 dairy farms which were visited once, on average 9 days (± 5.2) prior to the mating start date (23 April, ± 12.6). Blood samples were collected via coccygeal venepuncture for progesterone (P4) analysis, and animals were scanned for the presence or absence of corpora lutea (CL), to determine the luteal status. A comparison of luteal status between ultrasound (CL identified) and P4 (≥ 1 ng/ml), based on a single measurement point, showed poor agreement (K = 0.32). The majority of animals were classified as luteal (76%) using both ultrasonography and P4. There was excellent agreement between luteal status detected by ultrasonography alone and luteal status assigned by a combination of ultrasonography and P4 (K = 0.93). The agreement between luteal status assigned by P4 and luteal status assigned by the combination of ultrasonography and P4 was poor (K = 0.37). These results indicate that at a single examination, ultrasonography is the preferred modality to determine the luteal status of maiden heifers.     

Serial Transrectal Ultrasonography for Monitoring the Reproductive Activity of the Asiatic Black Bear (Ursus thibetanus ussuricus)

This study evaluated the structural changes in the reproductive tract of Asiatic black bears using serial transrectal ultrasonography. In addition, the ultrasonographic observations were compared with the results of vaginal cytology and hormonal analyses. The collection of blood for hormonal analysis, vaginal cytology and transrectal ultrasonography was performed in two bears (Bears 1 and 2) from June 2011 to August 2013 without mating and in a third bear (Bear 3) from April to December 2012, allowing natural mating. Serial ultrasonographic observations showed cyclic changes in ovarian structures (e.g. emergence of small follicles, growth and ovulation of dominant follicles and corpus luteum (CL) formation) during the reproductive cycles of the three bears. The diameter of the uterine horns remained similar throughout the reproductive cycle in Bears 1 and 2, and it remained similar from April until October, but an enlargement containing foetuses was observed in Bear 3 in December. The ultrasonographic observations were consistent with the data obtained through vaginal cytology and progesterone analysis during the reproductive cycle. An average of 4.0 (±0.4) dominant follicles was observed during the oestrous stage (May‐August), during which the superficial cells accounted for >90% of the total vaginal cells. In addition, the detection of an average of 2.6 (±0.2) CL was associated with increased plasma progesterone concentrations (3.0 ± 0.4 ng/ml) between June and December (near hibernation). In conclusion, serial transrectal ultrasonography demonstrated yearly oestrous (ovulation) cycles via follicular dynamics and CL formation on ovaries, accordingly with vaginal cytology and hormonal level in the Asiatic black bear.