The effects of thermal treatment of field peas (Pisum sativum L.) on nutrient and energy digestibility by growing pigs

An experiment was conducted to measure the effect of thermal treatment on the digestibility of CP, AA, starch, NDF, ADF, and energy in field peas fed to growing pigs. Five pea-containing diets were formulated. The peas included in these diets were either not heat-treated (control) or extruded at 75, 115, or 155 degrees C or pelleted at 75 degrees C. A N-free diet was also included in the experiment to measure basal endogenous losses of CP and AA. The 6 diets were fed to 6 growing pigs (initial BW: 69.3 +/- 2.9 kg) that were allotted to dietary treatments in a 6 x 6 Latin square design. A T-cannula was installed in the distal ileum of each pig, allowing for the collection of ileal digesta. Each experimental period lasted 9 d; fecal samples were collected on d 6 and 7, and ileal samples were collected on d 8 and 9 of each period. Apparent ileal digestibilities (AID) for CP, AA, starch, and energy and standardized ileal digestibility values (SID) for CP and AA were calculated. Apparent total tract digestibilities (ATTD) for NDF, ADF, starch, and energy were also calculated. As the extrusion temperature increased, the AID and SID for CP and all AA, except Pro, increased (quadratic, P < 0.05). In contrast, except for Arg and Pro, the peas that were pelleted at 75 degrees C had AID and SID for CP and AA that were similar to those obtained for the control peas but less (P < 0.05) than the AID for the peas that were extruded at 75 degrees C. The AID for starch and energy increased (linear, P < 0.001) as the extrusion temperature increased to 155 degrees C (from 89.8 to 95.9% and from 71.5 to 79.0%, respectively), but the AID for starch and energy in the pelleted diet was not different from the AID in the control diet (90.1 vs. 89.8% and 69.1 vs. 71.5%, respectively). The ATTD for starch varied from 98.6 to 99.7% and did not differ among treatments. Likewise, no differences were observed for the ATTD of NDF and ADF. However, the ATTD for energy in the diets increased from 89.0 to 93.3% (linear and quadratic, P < 0.05) as field peas were extruded, and the ATTD for energy in the pelleted diet was also greater (P < 0.05) than that of the control diet (91.6 vs. 89.0%). In conclusion, extrusion of field peas increases the AID of CP, AA, starch, and energy and the ATTD of energy. Pelleting field peas at 75 degrees C does not influence the AID of nutrients or energy but improves the ATTD of energy.     

The influence of dietary field peas (Pisum sativum L.) on pig performance, carcass quality, and the palatability of pork

An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that field peas may replace soybean meal in diets fed to growing and finishing pigs without negatively influencing pig performance, carcass quality, or pork palatability. Forty-eight pigs (initial average BW 22.7 +/- 1.21 kg) were allotted to 1 of 3 treatments with 2 pigs per pen. There were 8 replications per treatment, 4 with barrows and 4 with gilts. The treatments were control, medium field peas, and maximum field peas. Pigs were fed grower diets for 35 d, early finisher diets for 35 d, and late finisher diets for 45 d. Pigs receiving the control treatment were fed corn-soybean meal diets. All diets fed to pigs receiving the medium field peas treatment contained 36% field peas and varying amounts of corn; soybean meal was also included in the grower and the early finisher diets fed to pigs on this treatment. In contrast, no soybean meal was included in diets fed to pigs on the maximum field peas treatment, and field peas were included at concentrations of 66, 48, and 36% in the grower, early finisher, and late finisher diets, respectively. Pig performance was monitored within each phase and for the entire experimental period. At the conclusion of the experiment, carcass composition, carcass quality, and the palatability of pork chops and pork patties were measured. Results showed that there were no effects of dietary treatments on ADFI, ADG, or G:F. Likewise, there were no differences in carcass composition among the treatment groups, but gilts had larger (P = 0.001) and deeper (P = 0.003) LM, less backfat (P = 0.007), and a greater (P = 0.002) lean meat percentage than barrows. The pH and marbling of the LM, and the 10th rib backfat were not influenced by treatment, but there was a trend (P = 0.10) for more marbling in barrows than in gilts. The subjective color scores (P = 0.003) and the objective color score (P = 0.06) indicated that dietary field peas made the LM darker and more desirable. Pork chops from pigs fed field peas also had less (P = 0.02) moisture loss compared with chops from pigs fed the control diet. Treatment or sex did not influence palatability of pork chops or pork patties. In conclusion, field peas may replace all of the soybean meal in diets fed to growing and finishing pigs without negatively influencing pig performance, carcass composition, carcass quality, or pork palatability.     

Effects of field pea (Pisum sativum L.) hay feeding on dry matter intake and milk production of Murrah buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) fed rice straw ad libitum

To identify the effects of field pea hay (FPH) as a supplement of rice straw (RS) on feed intake and milk production of mid‐late lactation buffaloes in Tarai, Nepal, nine multiparous Murrah were fed a concentrate at 0.6% of their bodyweight (BW) on a concentrate dry matter (DM) basis daily while having ad libitum access to RS. The buffaloes were divided into three groups, and the experiment with three levels of FPH feeding was conducted at the following rate of BW: 0% (T1), 0.5% (T2) and 1.0% (T3) on an FPH DM basis. The DM intake (DMI) was higher in T2 and T3 than in T1. As the amount of FPH was raised, the BW change, crude protein intake (CPI) and total digestible nutrient intake (TDNI) was increased. Although the yield of milk and milk composition did not differ among the treatments, the 7% fat corrected milk yield (FCMY) tended to increase as FPH feeding amount was raised. Although there were no significant differences in FCMY/DMI and FCMY/TDNI among the treatments, FCMY/CPI decreased with FPH feeding. Supplementary FPH increased DMI, CPI and TDNI that might have raised BW, and tended to improve FCMY in mid‐late lactating buffaloes as a result of an increase in TDNI.     

The feed value in growing pigs of a new cultivar of field beans (Vicia faba L.) supplemented with DL-methionine or DL-methionine-hydroxyanalog

Investigations in growing pigs on the feeding value of a new cultivar of field beans (Vicia faba L.) supplemented with DL -methionine or DL -methionine-hydroxyanalogue
A basal control mixture of barley, soy bean meal and soy bean oil was replaced by 25% of the new field bean-cultivar `Divine' and the resulting two mixtures were supplemented with minerals, trace elements, vitamins and amino acids according to the ideal protein concept. The control diet was adjusted with DL -methionine ( DL -Met), the field bean mixture either with DL -Met or DL -methionine-hydroxyanalogue ( DL -MHA) assuming biological equivalence on a molar basis for both supplements. The three experimental diets were fed to growing pigs (35–40 kg bwt.). Spontaneous urine samples were analysed separately for determining parameters that characterize the acid-base status of the pigs. There were no significant differences between experimental groups in nutrient digestibilities. The level of bacterially fermentable substances was increased in the diets containing field beans. The field beans contained 14 mg ME/kg DM. There were no significant (p < 0,05) differences in N- and mineral-retentions (Ca, P, Na, K) between the treatments. The stronger alkalinity found in urine after feeding the field bean mixtures resulted from a higher electrolyte balance of the diet.     

Influence of peas (Pisum sativum) as a dietary ingredient and flavomycin supplementation on the performance and intestinal microflora of broiler chicks

1. Two experiments were carried out to study the effects of diets containing various concentrations of pea meal (Pisum sativum L.), with or without flavomycin supplementation, on the performance and intestinal microflora of broiler chicks. 2. During the 7 to 28-d period, chicks fed on diets containing 300, 600 and 800 g pea meal/kg consumed more food and gained more weight than chicks receiving a maize-isolated soyabean protein control diet. The addition of flavomycin to the diets had similar effects on the performance of both the control and the pea groups. 3. Pea diets, with and without supplemental flavomycin, had little influence on the composition of intestinal microflora. The counts of enterococci in the small intestine and Clostridium perfringens and coliforms in the caeca of pea-fed chicks exceeded those of control chicks.     

Effect of toasting grain silages from field peas (Pisum sativum) and field beans (Vicia faba) on in vitro gas production,methane production,and post-ruminal crude protein content

Legume grains such as field peas and field beans can be produced on a local level, and may be reliable sources of dietary protein and energy apart from common soybean and rapeseed meals. In ruminants, protein, starch, and carbohydrates from peas and field beans are fermented in large part before reaching the small intestine. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of a combination of ensiling and hydro-thermic treatment (i.e., toasting at 160 °C for 30 min) of grains of peas and field beans on the concentrations of post-ruminal crude protein (PRCP) and rumen-undegraded protein (RUP). Moreover, 24-h gas production and methane production were measured. For this, an in vitro batch culture system with ruminal fluid from sheep was used. Rumen-undegraded protein was determined using the Streptomyces griseus protease test. Scanning electron micrographs were used to visualize morphological changes of starch granules and their joint matrices in peas and field beans after ensiling, toasting, or a combination of both. Native pea grains contained crude protein (CP) at 199 g/kg DM, PRCP at 155 g/kg DM at a ruminal passage rate of 0.08/h (Kp8), RUP at 33 g/kg DM at Kp8, and starch at 530 g/kg DM. Native field beans contained CP at 296 g/kg DM, PRCP at 212 g/kg DM at Kp8, RUP at 54 g of/kg DM at Kp8, and starch at 450 g/kg DM. The PRCP did not considerably differ among native and treated peas or field beans. Especially in the peas, RUP at Kp8 increased after ensiling by 10 g/kg DM (i.e., 30%; P < 0.05). Toasting increased RUP (Kp8) in ensiled peas by another 28% (P < 0.05). Toasting had no effect on PRCP or RUP when the peas or field beans were not ensiled before. Gas and methane production were not affected by any treatment, and scanning electron micrographs did not reveal structural changes on the starches doubtless of any treatment. Protein seemed to be more affected by treatment with ensiled + toasted peas than with ensiled + toasted field beans, but starches and other carbohydrates from both legumes remained unaffected.     

Substitution of fixed amounts of soyabean meal for field beans (Vicia faba), sweet lupins (Lupinus albus), cull peas (Pisum sativum) and vetchs (Vicia sativa) in diets for high performance laying leghorn hens

1. An experiment was conducted to establish the effect of increasing the dietary amounts of field beans, sweet lupins, cull peas and vetchs on the productivity of high performance laying hens.

2. There was a significant negative relationship (P<0.001) between the dietary concentration of beans and vetchs and food intake, egg production and food to egg ratio.

3. The inclusion of peas or lupins up to 300 and 200 g/kg, respectively, did not affect productivity (P>0.05).

4. The diets with vetchs and the highest amounts of the other three legumes caused egg production to decline in the last week (P<0.01), compared to the beginning of the experiment. This effect seems to indicate an accumulation of toxicants in the organs of the birds.     

饲喂方式对生长肥育猪生产性能的影响

利用自动食槽对生长肥育猪(20～60kg)进行饲喂，采用自由采食比定时饲喂日增重高20.27%(P＜0.01)；每千克增重消耗饲料，试验组比对照组平均少耗0.175kg，(P＜0.01)。     

Weaned piglets display low gastrointestinal digestion of pea (Pisum sativum L.) lectin and pea albumin 2

A study was conducted to investigate the biochemistry of digestion of field pea (Pisum sativum L.) albumins and globulins in the stomach and along the small intestine of weaned piglets with a particular emphasis on the respective roles of these compartments in pea protein digestion. Twenty-four piglets were weaned at 28 d of age. They were allocated to 2 diets (control and pea) and 3 slaughter times (3, 6, or 9 h after the last meal) in a 2 x3 factorial arrangement of treatments in a randomized complete block design. Pea flour provided 30% of total dietary protein in the pea diet. The diets were fed for 2 wk after weaning. After slaughter, gastrointestinal tract (GIT) compartments were weighed, digesta were collected, and pH was measured. Digesta from the stomach and cranial, middle, and caudal small intestine (SI) were extracted for soluble proteins and analyzed for specific pea proteins using SDS-PAGE, immunoblotting, and mass spectrometry. Tissue weight of the whole GIT (P = 0.015), cecum (P <0.001), and colon (P <0.001) was greater in the pea diet. Digesta pH in the stomach and caudal SI was lower (P = 0.02) in the pea diet than the control diet. In the stomach, vicilin, lectin, and pea albumin 2 were not digested, whereas legumin was only partly digested. Legumin and vicilin were totally digested in the SI in less than 3 h. A resistant peptide of 15 kDa located at the N-terminus of pea albumin 2 was transiently detected at 3 h. A protein band at 20 kDa was consistently identified as lectin. It was present in high intensity in intestinal digesta of pea-fed piglets at all times after the meal compared with those fed the control diet (P <0.001). Various proteins of, presumably, endogenous origin displayed differential digestion patterns between the control and the pea-fed piglets (P<0.05). In conclusion, differences in digestion between specific pea proteins were observed along the GIT of piglets. They could be partly explained by differences in protein digestion in the stomach.     

Effect of ensiling moist field bean (Vicia faba), pea (Pisum sativum) and lupine (Lupinus spp.) grains on the contents of alkaloids,oligosaccharides and tannins

Ensiling legume grain may be an inexpensive and ecologically interesting method to produce a high‐protein feed of local origin. The typically patchy maturation recommends harvesting and ensiling the seeds in moist condition. Developing a method for preserving legume grains harvested before maturation by lactic acid fermentation would have several advantages. Under laboratory conditions, crushed legume seeds of beans, peas and lupines with high moisture content of 35 % were ensiled with different additives (molasses and lactic acid bacteria). To characterize the final silages, contents of proximate nutrients and antinutritional factors (alkaloids, oligosaccharides, tannins) were analysed. The addition of lactic acid bacteria ensured a fast and pronounced lactic acid production and decreased contents of undesired fermentation products like ethanol. An additional use of molasses for ensilage did not provide a remarkable additional benefit. Excluding sugar and starch, the contents of proximate nutrients were not remarkably altered after ensiling. As an overall effect, lactic acid fermentation reduced tannins and oligosaccharides. It can be supposed that the oligosaccharides after breakdown of the complex molecules acted as a source of fermentable carbohydrates. A relevant reduction of alkaloids did not occur. The lactic acid fermentation of legume grains can be recommended as an appropriate method for conservation. With respect to the economic advantages and compared with methods of chemical preservation, the lactic acid fermentation of legume grains under anaerobic conditions is an environmentally compliant procedure and therefore also an option for organic farming.     

陈化玉米在生长猪上的营养价值评定

试验旨在评定饲粮中添加陈化玉米对生长猪的营养价值影响。选择平均体重为(33.00±0.95) kg的健康DLY三元杂交猪40头,按照体重相近的原则,随机分为对照组和陈化玉米组两个组,每组10个重复,每个重复2头猪。对照组饲喂含60%新玉米的饲粮,陈化玉米组用陈化玉米等量替代新玉米。试验分为30 d的生长试验和12 d的消化代谢试验,总计42 d。结果表明:①与对照组相比,陈化玉米组对生长猪的平均日采食量(ADFI)、平均日增重(ADG)和料重比(F/G)无显著影响(P>0.05);②与对照组相比,陈化玉米组对生长猪的粗蛋白质表观消化率极显著提高了10.10%(P<0.01),对灰分表观消化率极显著降低了36.63%(P<0.01);③与对照组相比,陈化玉米组对生长猪天门冬氨酸、苏氨酸、丝氨酸、甘氨酸、缬氨酸、赖氨酸、组氨酸和精氨酸的表观消化率分别极显著的提高了9.85%、10.09%、6.58%、16.17%、14.78%、12.00%、7.45%和5.56%(P<0.01),对谷氨酸、丙氨酸和胱氨酸的表观消化率显著提高了3.48%、4.11%和4.71%(P<0.05),对异亮氨酸的表观消化率有提高的趋势(P=0.071);④与对照组相比,陈化玉米组对生长猪的饲粮表观消化能和代谢能无显著影响(P>0.05)。结果提示,饲粮中使用60%的陈化玉米对生长猪的生长性能、干物质、粗脂肪、粗纤维、酸性洗涤纤维、中性洗涤纤维的表观消化率以及饲粮表观消化能和代谢能的影响不显著,但能极显著提高粗蛋白质和氨基酸的表观消化率。     

Effect of field pea (Pisum sativum L.) level on intake,digestion, ruminal fermentation and in vitro gas production in sheep fed maintenance diets

The objective of this study was the characterization of the nutritive value, ruminal fermentation and nutrient digestibility of field pea (Pisum sativum L.) hay (FPH) by‐product through in situ, in vitro and in vivo tests. A FPH diet was administered ad libitum to four sheep (live weight (LW) 38.0 ± 2.0 kg) at four inclusion levels (0, 25, 50 and 75%) over a conventional sorghum grain/oat straw ration in a 4 × 4 Latin square design. The in situ degradability of FPH was 67% dry matter (DM), 71% crude protein and 66% neutral detergent fiber (NDF). The inclusion of FPH did not affect (P ≥ 0.05) the DM (61 ± 0.4 g/LW^0.75/day) and organic matter (OM) intake (56 ± 0.7 g/LW^0.75/day). Total DM digestibility (68 ± 2.5%), OM (70 ± 3%), and NDF (60 ± 3%), were not different (P ≥ 0.05) between control and FPH inclusion diets. The diet had no effect on ruminal pH, ruminal ammonia concentration, total and individual volatile fatty acids. The chemical composition and sheep intake behavior indicate that FPH by‐product is medium quality forage when incorporated in maintenance rations.     

Nutritive value of fermented and amino acid-supplemented malted sorghum sprouts for growing pigs

Two experiments were carried out to determine the effects of diets containing fermented and amino acid (AA)-supplemented malted sorghum sprout (MSP) on performance, nutrient utilisation and feed cost analysis of growing pigs. In experiment 1 (digestibility trial), 12 pigs were individually housed in metabolic crates, equipped with feeding and watering troughs which also allow for separate collection of faeces and urine. Data collection lasted for 7 days during which feed intake and faecal output were weighed, with daily storage of collected faeces at ?4 °C. Four diets, a basal diet, basal plus malted sorghum sprout (B?+?MSP), basal plus fermented malted sorghum sprout (B?+?FMSP) and basal plus amino acids plus malted sorghum sprout (B?+?AA?+?MSP), were tested. Samples of test ingredients, feed and faeces were analysed for their gross energy and proximate compositions. In experiment 2, 18 weaner pigs were used in a completely randomised design for 63 days to determine the performance and cost analysis of feeding malted sorghum sprout at 0, 100 and 200 g/kg in pig’s diet, six pigs per diet with each pig representing a replicate. Daily feed intake and weekly weight gain were determined. The prevailing cost of each feed ingredient was used to compute the feed cost and, subsequently, the feed cost analysis. Results of digestibility trial showed that there was no difference in the utilisation of the chemical constituents of B?+?MSP and B?+?AA?+?MSP diets, which were also similar to the basal diet, except the crude protein (CP) in amino acid-supplemented malted sorghum sprout diet, which was lower compared to the basal diet. B?+?FMSP was lower (P?<?0.05) in the digestibility of dry matter, organic matter and CP compared to the basal diet. The digestible energy (DE) and the fraction of gross energy utilised as DE of each diet also were not affected by fermentation and supplementation with AA. In experiment 2, the levels of MSP used did not affect (P?>?0.05) the performance and feed cost indices measured. It was concluded that MSP can be used in growing pig’s diet, without the need for fermentation and AA supplementation, at 200 g/kg level with no adverse effect on the nutritive value of the diet.     

Nutritional value of a corn containing a glutamate dehydrogenase gene for growing pigs

Eight female PIC Line 42 pigs (initial BW = 47.5 +/- 1.8 kg) were used in a two-period switchback design (n = 4 per treatment per period) to evaluate the nutritional difference between a genetically modified corn and a similar nontransgenic corn. The genetically altered corn (gdhA+) contained a glutamate dehydrogenase gene isolated from Escherichia coli. The non-transgenic corn was the same variety lacking the transgenic cassette, grown at the same two locations. Pigs were surgically fitted with steered ileocecal valve cannulas for collection of ileal digesta. Diets were made up of primarily one of the two corn sources. Dietary AA profiles were adjusted using crystalline AA to match Illinois Ideal Protein Ratios. Pigs were limit-fed at 8% of metabolic body weight (BW0.75) in two equal feedings at 0600 and 1800 daily throughout the experiment. The study consisted of two 15-d periods. Each period consisted of a 7-d acclimation period, a 3-d total collection of feces and urine, two 12-h ileal collections, and a 3-d adjustment period between ileal collections to ensure adequate hydration. Crude protein, leucine, methionine, alanine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, and tyrosine concentrations were greater (P < 0.05) in the gdhA+ corn than in the nontransgenic variety. The presence of the gene did not alter (P > 0.17) BW gain. Similarly, DM digestibility, fecal N excretion (grams per day), apparent total-tract N digestibility, N balance, net protein utilization, and N retained as percentages of absorbed were not affected (P > or = 0.32) by the gene modification. Apparent ileal AA digestibility values did not differ (P > 0.31) between the two dietary treatments. Results of this study suggest corn that contains the E coli. gene for glutamate dehydrogenase was nutritionally equivalent to the unaltered variety.     

Effect of variety and drying method on the nutritive value of corn for growing pigs

Background：This experiment was conducted to determine the nutritive value of corn from the north of China for growing pigs.The experiment examined corn variety（LS1,LS2,LS3 and LS4）grown in one location,drying method（sun dried and artificially dried）and different drying temperatures.Corn harvested at 20-25%moisture was dried to about 12%moisture by sun drying and artificially drying at 80,100,or 120℃ in a fluidized bed dryer.Ninety-six barrows（average BW of 33.4 ± 2.7 kg）were housed in individual metabolism crates to facilitate separate collection of feces and urine.A five-day collection period followed a seven-day diet acclimation period.Results：The results indicated that variety significantly influenced（P〈0.01）the 1,000 kernel weight of corn but not the bulk weight.Variety also influenced the available energy content（digestible energy of dry matter,P〈0.01;metabolisable energy of dry matter,P〈0.01）and digestibility of organic matter（P〈0.01）,as well as dry matter（P〈0.01）and gross energy（GE）content（P〈0.02）.The drying method of corn significantly influenced the 1,000 kernel weight（P〈0.01）,bulk weight（P〈0.01）and digestibility of ether extract（EE）（P〈0.01）.No effect of drying temperature on the digestibility of organic matter,dry matter（DM）,crude protein（CP）,neutral detergent fiber（NDF）,acid detergent fiber（ADF）and gross energy was observed,but gelatinization（P〈0.05）and test weight（P〈0.01）decreased with an increase in temperature.Conclusions：Variety has a significant impact on the nutritive value of corn for growing pigs,and greater attention needs to be paid to these influences in the assignment of the nutritive value of corn given to growing pigs.     

Effect of variety and drying method on the nutritive value of corn for growing pigs

Background

This experiment was conducted to determine the nutritive value of corn from the north of China for growing pigs. The experiment examined corn variety (LS1, LS2, LS3 and LS4) grown in one location, drying method (sun dried and artificially dried) and different drying temperatures. Corn harvested at 20-25% moisture was dried to about 12% moisture by sun drying and artificially drying at 80, 100, or 120°C in a fluidized bed dryer. Ninety-six barrows (average BW of 33.4 ± 2.7 kg) were housed in individual metabolism crates to facilitate separate collection of feces and urine. A five-day collection period followed a seven-day diet acclimation period.

Results

The results indicated that variety significantly influenced (P < 0.01) the 1,000 kernel weight of corn but not the bulk weight. Variety also influenced the available energy content (digestible energy of dry matter, P < 0.01; metabolisable energy of dry matter, P < 0.01) and digestibility of organic matter (P < 0.01), as well as dry matter (P < 0.01) and gross energy (GE) content (P < 0.02). The drying method of corn significantly influenced the 1,000 kernel weight (P < 0.01), bulk weight (P < 0.01) and digestibility of ether extract (EE) (P < 0.01). No effect of drying temperature on the digestibility of organic matter, dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF) and gross energy was observed, but gelatinization (P < 0.05) and test weight (P < 0.01) decreased with an increase in temperature.

Conclusions

Variety has a significant impact on the nutritive value of corn for growing pigs, and greater attention needs to be paid to these influences in the assignment of the nutritive value of corn given to growing pigs.     

不同饲喂次数对猪生产性能的影响

本试验研究不同饲喂次数对育肥猪生长性能的影响。试验结果表明,生长肥育母猪(平均初始体重60kg)日饲喂2次较为合理。     

Estimation of direct and social effects of feeding duration in growing pigs using records from automatic feeding stations

Automatic feeding systems in pig production allow for the recording of individual feeding behavior traits, which might be influenced by the social interactions among individuals. This study fitted mixed models to estimate the direct and social effects on visit duration at the feeder of group-housed pigs. The dataset included 74,413 records of each visit duration time (min) event at the automatic feeder from 135 pigs housed in 14 pens. The sequence of visits at the feeder was employed as a proxy for the social interaction between individuals. To estimate animal effects, the direct effect was apportioned to the animal feeding (feeding pig), and the social effect was apportioned to the animal that entered the feeder immediately after the feeding pig left the feeding station (follower). The data were divided into two subsets: “non-immediate replacement” time (NIRT, N = 6,256), where the follower pig occupied the feeder at least 600 s after the feeding pig left the feeder, and “immediate replacement” time (IRT, N= 58,255), where the elapsed time between replacements was less than or equal to 60 s. The marginal posterior distribution of the parameters was obtained by Bayesian method. Using the IRT subset, the posterior mean of the proportion of variance explained by the direct effect (Prpσ^d2) was 18% for all models. The proportion of variance explained by the follower social effect (Prpσ^f2) was 2%, and the residual variance (σ^e2) decreased, suggesting an improved model fit by including the follower effect. Fitting the models with the NIRT subset, the estimate of Prpσ^d2 was 20% but the Prpσ^f2 was almost zero and σ^e2 was identical for all models. For the IRT subset, the predicted best linear unbiased predictor (BLUP) of direct (Direct BLUP) and social (Follower BLUP) random effects on visit duration at the feeder of an animal was calculated. Feeder visit duration time was not correlated with traits, such as weight gain or average feed intake (P > 0.05), whereas for the daily feeder occupation time, the estimated correlation was positive with the Direct BLUP (r^= 0.51, P < 0.05) and negative with the Follower BLUP (r^= −0.26, P < 0.05). The results suggest that the visit duration of an animal at the single-space feeder was influenced by both direct and social effects when the replacement time between visits was less than 1 min. Finally, animals that spent a longer time per day at the feeder seemed to do so by shortening the meal length of the preceding individual at the feeder.     

Effect of pelleting and associations with maize or wheat on the nutritive value of smooth pea (Pisum sativum) seeds in adult cockerels

Four types of diet were tested: 960 g maize/kg (M), 960 g wheat/kg (W), 463 g maize added to 497 g of smooth peas/kg (PM) and 463 g wheat added to 497 g smooth peas/kg (PW). Three treatments were applied to each of these 4 diets: grinding (OP), one steam pelleting (1 P) and two successive steam pelleting (2 P). The pelleted diets were ground before feeding. Adult cockerels received all the diets whereas rats received only W and PW diets. Apparent metabolisable energy values corrected for N-equilibrium (AMEn), protein and starch digestibilities were measured in adult cockerels. Digestible energy (DE) values were measured in rats. The AMEn values of cereals remained practically unchanged by pelleting, whereas that of smooth peas was increased by between 1.8-4.6% after pelleting. Pelleting also induced 3.5 and 5.4% increases respectively in the digestibilities of pea protein and starch. Pelleting did not change the DE values measured in rats. The AMEn values of smooth peas mixed with maize were 4.6% higher than those of smooth peas mixed with wheat. The true digestibility of pea protein was 8.4% higher in the former mixture, whereas the pea starch digestibility remained unchanged. Calculation showed that most of the pea AMEn variations could be explained in terms of variations in protein and starch digestibilities.