Water use and yield response of wheat to irrigation and nitrogen on an alluvial soil in North India

Field studies were conducted for four years on alluvial soils of North India to determine the water use, water use efficiency and yield performance of a semi-dwarf high-yielding wheat variety (Triticum aestivum L.) in response to irrigation schedule and nitrogen fertilization. Irrigation scheduling was based on different ratios between irrigation water and cumulative pan evaporation (IW/CPE). Irrigations of 6-cm depth were applied on the basis of IW/CPE ratio of 0.45, 0.60, 0.75 and 0.90. Pan evaporation data were recorded daily using standard USWB-Class A Open pan (as prescribed by India Meterological Department) located at Research Farm, Selakui, Dehradun where the experiment was conducted. The CPE values were computed for each year individually. The crop was fertilized with nitrogen at the rate of 0, 60 and 120 kg/ha.The yield and yield attributes were highest and irrigation efficiency was maximum when irrigation was applied at an IW/CPE ratio of 0.75 in a normal-rainfall year and at 0.90 in a low-rainfall year. Water use efficiency decreased with increase in irrigation frequency. Nitrogen fertilization increased the yield of wheat linearly and was maximum at 120 kg nitrogen per hectare.     

滴灌水氮耦合对水氮利用及冬小麦产量的影响

以华北地区冬小麦为试验对象,参考直径20 cm标准蒸发皿的累计水面蒸发量E,通过2 a的大田试验(2012—2013),研究了大田地表滴灌条件下水氮耦合制度对作物耗水量、作物生理指标、产量、氮残留及水氮利用效率的影响,结果表明,冬小麦生育期内的耗水量、叶面积指数及产量受灌水定额的影响更为显著(P<0.05);滴灌条件下,当施氮量在120~290 kg/hm²时,水氮耦合效应对冬小麦耗水量的影响不具有统计学意义;在滴灌灌水定额为0.80E,施氮量为140~190 kg/hm²的水氮耦合模式下,冬小麦的产量较高,土壤硝态氮的当季残留较少,且进一步显著增加灌水定额和氮肥投入量将导致产量的明显下降;综合考虑冬小麦水氮利用效率和对地下水的潜在淋失风险,华北典型区滴灌水氮耦合的优化组合范围宜为灌水定额为0.80E,施氮量为140~190 kg/hm².     

Water use and yield of winter wheat in Northern India as affected by timing of last irrigation

Summary Standard local practice in Northern India is to continue irrigation of winter wheat crop almost up to harvest, based on the farmer's belief that this treatment increases grain weight and yield. The effect of an early cut-off of irrigation on the water use was studied in a three-year experiment on a deep, sandy-loam soil.Wheat, sown during the second or third week of November, received its first irrigation four weeks later. Subsequently treatments included irrigations of 7.5 cm water depth applied after 10 cm of cumulative pan evaporation minus rainfall had elapsed since the previous irrigation up till mid-April; irrigations of 7.5 cm up till mid-February and thereafter irrigation equal to 75 and 100% soil-water deficit in the 0–180 cm profile around March 10 with no later irrigation; and a similar treatment with one additional irrigation after making up the water deficit.Least irrigation water was used from the treatment in which 75% water deficit was restored around March 10 and no further irrigation was applied. This treatment increased the average extraction of profile water by 4 cm compared to treatments in which irrigation was continued until mid-April. Profile water depletion was inversely related to the amount of irrigation. Grain weight and yields from the various treatments harvested in the last week of April were unaffected by the treatments.The authors are grateful to the ICAR for financing this research     

Yield and economic return of vegetable crops under variable irrigation

 Field experiments were conducted for 2 years (1997 and 1998) on sandy loam soil in northwestern Botswana to study the effect of five levels of pan evaporation replenishment (20, 40, 60, 80 and 100%) on marketable yield, yield components, irrigation production efficiency and economic return of winter broccoli, carrot, rape and cabbage under a drip irrigation method. The highest mean marketable yield (2 years) of broccoli (19.1 t/ha), carrot (58.9 and 32.9 t/ha), rape (61.8 t/ha) and cabbage (97.2 t/ha) was recorded at 80% of pan evaporation replenishment. The irrigation production efficiency of broccoli (5.9 kg/m³), rape (14.6 kg/m³) and cabbage (23.6 kg/m³) was maximum at 80, 20 and 60% of pan evaporation replenishment respectively. Irrigation replenishment up to 80% of pan evaporation loss did not influence the irrigation production efficiency for total and root yield of carrot. The results revealed that a further increase in irrigation amount resulting from 100% of pan evaporation replenishment did not increase the marketable yield of crops but reduced the irrigation production efficiency significantly. The seasonal water applied and marketable yield of broccoli, carrot, rape and cabbage showed quadratic relationships (R ² = 0.85–0.98), which can be used for allocating irrigation water within and between the crops. The net return increased with the increase in pan evaporation replenishment. The results revealed that the rape crop is the most remunerative, followed by cabbage, broccoli and carrot. Received: 2 November 1998     

不同灌水量和灌水频率对田间黄瓜耗水特性及产量的影响

[目的]确定大田黄瓜最适宜的灌溉频率和灌水量.[方法]试验于2018年在华北水利水电大学农业高效用水试验场进行,以20 cm标准蒸发皿的累积蒸发量(E20)作为灌水依据,灌溉处理分为2个灌溉间隔(I1:3 d;I2:6 d)和3种水面蒸发系数(K1:0.5;K2:0.7;K3:0.9),共6个处理,对黄瓜耗水特性、产量...     

Responses of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) evapotranspiration and yield to sprinkler irrigation regimes

The North China Plain (NCP) is one of the main productive regions for winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and summer maize (Zea mays L.) in China. However, water-saving irrigation technologies (WSITs), such as sprinkler irrigation technology and improved surface irrigation technology, and water management practices, such as irrigation scheduling have been adopted to improve field-level water use efficiency especially in winter wheat growing season, due to the water scarcity and continuous increase of water in industry and domestic life in the NCP. As one of the WSITs, sprinkler irrigation has been increasingly used in the NCP during the past 20 years. In this paper, a three-year field experiment was conducted to investigate the responses of volumetric soil water content (SWC), winter wheat yield, evapotranspiration (ET), water use efficiency (WUE) and irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) to sprinkler irrigation regimes based on the evaporation from an uncovered, 20-cm diameter pan located 0-5 cm above the crop canopy in order to develop an appropriate sprinkler irrigation scheduling for winter wheat in the NCP. Results indicated that the temporal variations in SWC for irrigation treatments in the 0-60-cm soil layer were considerably larger than what occurred at deeper depths, whereas temporal variations in SWC for non-irrigation treatments were large throughout the 0-120-cm soil layer. Crop leaf area index, dry biomass, 1000-grains weight and yield were negatively affected by water stress for those treatments with irrigation depth less than 0.50E, where E is the net evaporation (which includes rainfall) from the 20-cm diameter pan. While irrigation with a depth over 1.0E also had negative effect on 1000-grains weight and yield. The seasonal ET of winter wheat was in a range of 206-499 mm during the three years experiments. Relatively high yield, WUE and IWUE were found for the irrigation depth of 0.63E. Therefore, for winter wheat in the NCP the recommended amount of irrigation to apply for each event is the total 0.63E that occurred after the previous irrigation provided total E is in a range of 30-40 mm.     

LEPA and trickle irrigation of cotton in the Southeast Anatolia Project (GAP) area in Turkey

This study was designed to evaluate the yield response of low-energy precision application (LEPA) and trickle-irrigated cotton grown on a clay-textured soil under the arid Southeast Anatolia Project (GAP) area conditions during the 1999 growing season at Koruklu in Turkey. The effects of four different irrigation levels (100, 75, 50, and 25% of cumulative Class-A pan evaporation on a 6-day basis) for LEPA, and two irrigation intervals (3-day and 6-day) and three different levels (100, 67, and 33% of cumulative Class-A pan evaporation on a 3-day and 6-day basis) for the trickle system on yield were investigated. Water was applied to alternate furrows through the double-ended Fangmeier drag-socks in the LEPA system. Trickle irrigation laterals were laid out on the soil surface at a spacing of 1.40 m. A total of 814 mm of water was applied to the full-irrigation treatments (100%) for both irrigation systems. Seasonal water use ranged from 383 to 854 mm in LEPA treatments; and 456 to 868 mm in trickle treatments. Highest average cotton yield of 5850 kg/ha was obtained from the full-irrigation treatment (100%) in trickle-irrigated plots with 6-day intervals. The highest yield in LEPA plots was obtained in LEPA-100% treatment with an average value of 4750 kg/ha. Seed cotton yields varied from 2660 to 5040 kg/ha and 2310 to 5850 kg/ha in trickle irrigation plots with 3-day and 6-day intervals, respectively, and from 2590 to 4750 kg/ha in LEPA plots. Irrigation levels both in LEPA and trickle-irrigated plots significantly increased yield. However, there was no significant yield difference between 100 and 67% irrigation levels in trickle-irrigated plots. Maximum irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) and water use efficiency (WUE) were found as 0.813 and 0.741 kg/m³ in trickle-irrigated treatment of 67% with 6-day interval. Both IWUE and WUE values varied with irrigation quantity and frequency. The research results revealed that both the trickle and LEPA irrigation systems could be used successfully for irrigating cotton crop under the arid climatic conditions of the GAP area in Turkey.     

Irrigation and tillage effects on root development,water use and yield of wheat on coarse textured soils

Summary Rapid drying of surface layers of coarse-textured soils early in the growth season increases soil strength and restricts root growth. This constraint on root growth may be countered by deep tillage and/or early irrigation. We investigated tillage and irrigation effects on root growth, water use, dry matter and grain yield of wheat on loamy sand and sandy loam soils for three years. Treatments included all combinations of two tillage systems i) conventional tillage (CT) — stirring the soil to 10 cm depth, ii) deep tillage (DT) — subsoiling with a single-tine chisel down to 35–40 cm, 40 cm apart followed by CT; and four irrigation regimes, i) I₀ — no post-seeding irrigation, ii) I₁ — 50 mm irrigation 30 days after seeding (DAS), iii) I₂ — 50 mm irrigation 30 DAS and subsequent irrigations of 75 mm each when net evaporation from USWB class A open pan (PAN-E) since previous irrigation accumulated to 82 mm, and iv) I₃ — same as in I² but irrigation applied when PAN-E accumulated to 62 mm. The crop of wheat (Triticum aestivum L. HD 2329) was fertilized with 20kg P, 10kg K and 5kg Zn ha^–1 at seeding. The rate of nitrogen fertilization was 60 kg ha^–1 in the unirrigated and 120 kg ha^–1 in the irrigated treatments. Tillage decreased soil strength and so did the early post-seeding irrigation. Both deep tillage and early irrigation shortened the time needed for the root system to reach a specified depth. Subsequent wetting through rain/irrigation reduced the rate of root penetration down the profile and also negated deep tillage effects on rooting depth. However, tillage/irrigation increased root length density in the rooted profile even in a wet year. Better rooting resulted in greater profile water depletion, more favourable plant water status and higher dry matter and grain yields. In a dry year, the wheat in the DT plots used 46 mm more water, remained 3.3 °C cooler at grain-fill and yielded 68% more grain than in CT when unirrigated and grown in the loamy sand. Early irrigation also increased profile water depletion, more so in CT than DT. Averaged over three years, grain yield in DT was 12 and 9% higher than in CT on loamy sand and sandy loam, respectively. Benefits of DT decreased with increase in rainfall and irrigation. Irrigation significantly increased grain yield on both soils, but the response was greatly influenced by soil type, tillage system and year. The study shows that soil related constraints on root growth may be alleviated through deep tillage and/or early irrigation.     

自动补水蒸发皿装置的原理及应用

为了更好地利用蒸发皿的蒸发量指导农田灌溉,根据马氏瓶工作原理设计了一种简单、实用,价格低廉而且操控性强的恒水位蒸发皿装置,此装置在20 cm标准蒸发皿的基础上附加了一个自动补水装置.以20 cm标准蒸发皿的蒸发量为标准,对可进行自动补水的恒水位蒸发皿的水面蒸发过程进行了验证.通过大田冬小麦试验建立了水面蒸发过程与冬小麦同阶段耗水过程的关系.结果表明,设计开发的蒸发皿装置,具有较好的稳定性,组间测量值相对平均误差小于5%,超过5 d相对平均误差小于2%;其水面蒸发过程与20 cm标准蒸发皿的蒸发量具有显著的相关关系,相关系数高达0.99;华北地区优质高产冬小麦在拔节期、抽穗扬花期和灌浆成熟期的田间耗水量,与自动补水蒸发皿同阶段累计水面蒸发量的比值分别为1.09,1.31和1.16.因此,可以用该装置的水面蒸发量来指导农田灌溉,达到农作物优质、高效、高产的目的.     

基于蒸发皿水面蒸发量制定冬小麦喷灌计划

该研究拟利用直径为20cm的标准蒸发皿,制定简单易行的喷灌冬小麦灌溉计划。试验于2005－2006年和2006－2007年冬小麦生长季节,在中国科学院通州农田水循环和节水灌溉试验基地进行。以布置在冠层上20 cm直径蒸发皿水面蒸发量（E）为基础,研究了不同水面蒸发量倍数（分别为0.25、0.50、0.75、1.00和1.25倍,以及不灌水对照处理）灌溉水量条件下,喷灌水量对土壤水分、冬小麦生长、产量、耗水量和水分利用效率的影响,分析了利用水面蒸发量制定喷灌灌溉计划的可行性。试验结果显示,喷灌条件下土壤水分主要在0～60 cm土层内变化。当灌溉水量小于0.25E时,冬小麦叶面积指数和生物量较小,而大于1.00E也会抑制冬小麦生长。喷灌条件下冬小麦单个生育期内的耗水量在 312～508 mm内变化,耗水量随着灌水量的增加而增加。喷灌0.50E～0.75E时,冬小麦产量和水分利用效率最高或者接近于最高;灌水量较小（≤0.25E）和较大（≥1.00E）时均会降低产量。建议在北京地区冬小麦返青后,喷灌水量可采用0.50～0.75倍的20 cm蒸发皿水面蒸发量,灌水间隔可采用5～7 d。     

Yield,water use and root distribution of wheat as affected by pre-sowing and post-sowing irrigation

Irrigation water is a limited resource, and therefore irrigation practices must be rationalized for high water-use efficiency. Little is known about the influence of stored water in deep soils on the water needs and the post-sowing irrigation requirements of crops. A 3-year field experiment was conducted to determine the effects of combinations of light and heavy pre-sowing irrigations with two post-sowing irrigation regimes on yield, root growth, water use and water-use efficiency of wheat on a deep alluvial sandy loam soil. Post-sowing treatments consisted of (i) five 75-mm irrigations at five growth stages, and (ii) irrigations based on pan evaporation, i.e. at IW/PAN-E ratio of 0.75 (75 mm of irrigation water were provided as soon as the open-pan evaporation minus rainfall since previous irrigation was 100 mm).The latter regime required 175 mm less water than that with irrigation at growth stages. Profile water utilization was inversely related to post-sowing irrigation water. Where pre-sowing irrigation was light, post-sowing irrigations based on pan evaporation yielded significantly less than those based on growth stages. With heavy pre-sowing irrigation, irrigation based on the pan evaporation yielded as much as five irrigations at growth stages. The former decreased the mean water application by 153 mm and increased the water-use efficiency by 26%. Irrigation based on pan evaporation stimulated greater utilization of stored water by increasing the rooting density in deeper layers.It is indicated that for higher water-use efficiency and yield, wheat should be sown after a heavy pre-sowing irrigation, and post-sowing irrigation should be based on 0.75 pan evaporation.     

不同灌溉控制指标对冬小麦生长及耗水特性的影响

【目的】探究冬小麦适宜的计划湿润层深度和土壤含水率控制下限的组合模式,为冬小麦田间用水管理及自动灌溉控制决策提供理论依据。【方法】以冬小麦为研究对象,采用大田试验,设置3个土壤含水率控制下限(L:40%,M:50%,H:60%)和3个计划湿润层深度(60、80、100 cm),共9个处理(T60L、T60M、T60H、T80L、T80M、T80H、T100L、T100M、T100H),研究了不同计划湿润层深度与土壤含水率控制下限对华北地区冬小麦生长发育和水分利用的影响。【结果】计划湿润层深度及土壤含水率控制下限的不同改变了处理间灌水定额及灌水次数,计划湿润层深度过高或土壤含水率控制下限过低均不利于冬小麦植株的生长发育。随着计划湿润层深度(60~100 cm)和土壤含水率控制下限(40%~60%)的增大,冬小麦花前及花后的干物质累积量呈先增大后减小的趋势。产量随土壤含水率控制下限增高呈增加趋势,当计划湿润层深度为80 cm时,产量相对最高,同时耗水量也越多,而计划湿润层深度为60 cm时耗水量最少。计划湿润层深度越低,土壤含水率控制下限越高,冬小麦水分利用效率则越高。T60H处理的水分利用效率最大,为19.96 kg/(hm²·mm),比最小值T100L大21.0%。【结论】本试验条件下,计划湿润层深度为60 cm,土壤含水率控制下限设置为土壤有效含水率的60%时,冬小麦节水高产效果相对最优。     

Evapotranspiration relationship with pan evaporation and evapotranspiration ratio of corn under different nitrogen levels and moisture regimes

In a field experiment with four moisture regimes and eight nitrogen levels, the ratios between evapotranspiration and pan evaporation ($\text{Et}\text{Eo}$) were low in the initial stages of crop growth and attained maximum values at 70–80% (20 and 40% available soil moisture depletion (ASMD)), 65% (60% ASMD) and 55% (80% ASMD) of the crop growth stage. Amongst nitrogen levels, the evapotranspiration ratio (ETR) was highest (3573) under no nitrogen and lowest (1312) with 180 kg N/ha. The 20% ASMD regime utilised less water (ETR= 1499 to produce a kilogram of grain than did the other moisture regimes. The lowest evapotranspiration ratio (914) was recorded with 20% ASMD and 180 kg N/ha in combination. The highest ETR (3954) was found with 60% ASMD and no nitrogen. An additive effect of nitrogen and moisture was found, in indicating that they can be substituted one for the other, when one of them becomes a constraint.     

Yield and water relations of wheat as influenced by irrigation and depth of tillage

Summary Development of a ploughpan has been reported in Bangladesh for almost all ploughed soils which are puddled for transplanted rice cultivation. Field information on the water requirement of dryland crops such as wheat and the effects of loosening the dense layer on crop yield and water use efficiency are very limited. Field experiments were, therefore, conducted in the grey floodplain soil of Sonatala series (Aeric Haplaquept) to study the irrigation and tillage effects on the yield and water relations of wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cv. Sonalika). The split plot design experiment comprised four irrigation treatments in the mainplots viz. W₀ = no irrigation, W₁ = irrigation of 5 cm at 4 weeks after planting, W₂-W₁ + irrigation(s) of 5 cm each at irrigation water to cummulative pan evaporation (IW/CPE) ratio of 0.75 and W₃- W₁ + irrigation(s) of 5 cm eacht at IW/CPE ratio of 0.50. The sub-plot tillage depth treatments were: A-7.5 cm (traditional), B-15 cm, C-22.5 cm, D-22.5 cm practised in alternate wheat seasons. Measurements were made of grain and straw yield, soil water depletion and water expense efficiency.Irrigation had no effect on grain or straw yield. Tillage to 15 cm increased wheat yield by about 15% over traditional depth to ploughing. In general, deep tillage coupled with one irrigation at four weeks after planting produced the largest wheat yield.Soil water depletion (SWD) in the 0–90 cm profile was greatest in the treatment receiving two irrigations, one at 4 weeks and again at IW/CPE ratio of 0.50. The average SWD in this treatment was 113 in 1982–83 and 82 mm in 1983–84. Plots receiving traditional tillage (7.5 cm) had the greatest SWD. Total water expense were the greatest in treatments receiving three irrigations. The maximum water expense efficiency (WEE) of wheat was observed in the non-irrigated plots in 1982–83 and 1983–84, respectively. Deep tillage treatments, in general, had significantly greater WEE than those under traditional ploughing. Intensive irrigation and efficient soil and water management are important factors in enhancing crop productivity. The former not only permits judicious water use but also better utilization of other production factors thereby leading to increased crop yield which, in turn, helps stabilize the farming economy. The best way to meet increasing demand for water is to adopt efficient water management practices to increase water use efficiency.Irrigation should aim at restoring the soil water in the root zone to a level at which the crop can fully meet its evapo-transpiration (ET) requirement. The amount of water to be applied at each irrigation and how often a soil should be irrigated depend, however, on several factors such as the degree of soil water deficit before irrigation, soil types, crops, and climatic conditions (Chaudhury and Gupta 1980).Knowledge of movement of water through the soil is imperative to efficient water management and utilization. The presence of a dense pan impedes water movement into the sub-soil. As a result, the top soil becomes saturated by irrigation and sensitive dryland crops can fail as this plough layer impedes the penetration of roots into deeper soil layers and decreases water extraction. Crops growing in these soils often undergo severe water stress within 5–8 days after rainfall or irrigation (Lowry et al. 1970). Due to decrease rates of water flow, the lower soil layer may remain unsaturated and as a result, the recharge and soil water storage in the profile are considerably decreased (Sur et al. 1981).In Bangladesh, ploughpans develop to varying degree in almost all ploughed soils (Brammer 1980). They are particularly marked in soils which are puddled for transplanted rice cultivation where the pan is usually only 8–10 cm below the soil surface and 3–5 cm thick. Its presence is generally regarded as advantageous for cultivation of transplanted rice in that it prevents excessive deep percolation losses of water. But in the same soil this cultivation for a subsequent dryland crop would adversely affect yield. A slight modification of the plough layer could enable good yields of both rice and a dryland crop to be obtained in the same soil in different seasons (Brammer 1980). The sub soils have a good bearing capacity, both when wet and dry and the pan can easily be reformed, if desired, for cultivating transplanted rice after a dryland crop like wheat.Professor of Soil Science, Dhaka University, Dhaka, Bangladesh     

Influence of mulching and irrigation scheduling on productivity and water use of turmeric (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Curcuma longa</Emphasis> L.) in north-western India

A field experiment was conducted to compute the water use and productivity of turmeric as a function of straw mulching and irrigation scheduling at Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, during 2013 and 2014. The experiment was laid out in split plot design, keeping mulch levels (no mulch and straw mulch 6 t/ha) and irrigation methods (drip and check basin) in main plots and irrigation schedules at 0.6, 0.8, 1.0 and 1.2 irrigation water/cumulative pan evaporation (IW/CPE) in subplots. Turmeric yield was 125.2 % higher with mulching than no mulch with 50 % saving in irrigation water. Drip irrigation resulted in significantly higher turmeric yield and benefit/cost (B/C) than check basin. Irrigation scheduling at 1.2 IW/CPE recorded significantly higher turmeric yield than other schedules. Drip irrigation at 0.8 IW/CPE resulted in statistically at par yield with check basin irrigation at 1.2 IW/CPE, thus saving 40 % irrigation water with significantly higher B/C. However, turmeric yield was at par between drip irrigation at 1.2 and 1.0 IW/CPE schedule, while a significant reduction in yield was recorded in check basin at 1.0 IW/CPE compared to 1.2 IW/CPE. Turmeric should be irrigated with drip at 1.0 and with check basin at 1.2 IW/CPE to realize potential yield.     

Water production function of sorghum for Northeast Brazil

The results of an experiment to determine the water production function of sorghum for Northeast Brazilian conditions are reported. The experiment was designed in two random blocks consisting of four growth stages for irrigation deficit and four levels of nitrogen.The crop response to water was found to be of quadratic nature. Regression coefficients were developed for each nitrogen and growth stage treatment between water use and grain yields. The most critical stage was found to be the vegetative stage followed by flowering and grain formation stages.The yield response factors as according to Doorenbos and Kassam were found to vary drastically not only with different nitrogen levels and crop growth stages but also with different irrigation levels. A modified linear equation has been suggested. The coefficients of this modified equation have been determined for all four stages and for the four nitrogen levels for sorghum.The highest average water use efficiency of 109.3 kg ha⁻¹ cm⁻¹ of water and highest obtainable grain yield of 4.92 t/ha was found to be at 425 mm of water use and 45 kg/ha of nitrogen.The crop coefficients (K_c) to compute crop water use from pan evaporation vary between 0.4 and 0.81 with an average for the whole growing period of 0.75.     

Evaluation of options for increasing yield and water productivity of wheat in Punjab, India using the DSSAT-CSM-CERES-Wheat model

The DSSAT-CSM-CERES-Wheat V4.0 model was calibrated for yield and irrigation scheduling of wheat with 2004–2005 data and validated with 13 independent data sets from experiments conducted during 2002–2006 at the Punjab Agricultural University (PAU) farm, Ludhiana, and in a farmer's field near PAU at Phillaur, Punjab, India. Subsequently, the validated model was used to estimate long-term mean and variability of potential yield (Y_p), drainage, runoff, evapo-transpiration (ET), crop water productivity (CWP), and irrigation water productivity (IWP) of wheat cv. PBW343 using 36 years (1970–1971 to 2005–2006) of historical weather data from Ludhiana. Seven sowing dates in fortnightly intervals, ranging from early October to early January, and three irrigation scheduling methods [soil water deficit (SWD)-based, growth stage-based, and ET-based] were evaluated. For the SWD-based scheduling, irrigation management depth was set to 75 cm with irrigation scheduled when SWD reached 50% to replace 100% of the deficit. For growth stage-based scheduling, irrigation was applied either only once at one of the key growth stages [crown root initiation (CRI), booting, flowering, and grain filling], twice (two stages in various combinations), thrice (three stages in various combinations), or four times (all four stages). For ET-driven irrigation, irrigations were scheduled based on cumulative net ETo (ETo-rain) since the previous irrigation, for a range of net ETo (25, 75, 125, 150, and 175 mm). Five main irrigation schedules (SWD-based, ET-driven with irrigation applied after accumulation of either 75 or 125 mm of ETo, i.e., ET75 or ET125, and growth stage-based with irrigation applied at CRI plus booting, or at CRI plus booting plus flowering stage) were chosen for detailed analysis of yield, water balance, and CWP and IWP. Nitrogen was non-limiting in all the simulations.Mean Y_p across 36 years ranged from 5.2 t ha⁻¹ (10 October sowing) to 6.4 t ha⁻¹ (10 November sowing), with yield variations due to seasonal weather greater than variations across sowing dates. Yields under different irrigation scheduling, CWP and IWP were highest for 10 November sowing. Yields and CWP were higher for SWD and ET75-based irrigations on both soils, but IWP was higher for ET75-based irrigation on sandy loam and for ET150-based irrigation on loam. Simulation results suggest that yields, CWP, and IWP of PBW343 would be highest for sowing between late October and mid-November in the Indian Punjab. It is recommended that sowing be done within this planting period and that irrigation be applied based on the atmospheric demand and soil water status and not on the growth stage. Despite the potential limitations recognised with simulation results, we can conclude that DSSAT-CSM-CERES-Wheat V4.0 is a useful decision support system to help farmers to optimally schedule and manage irrigation in wheat grown in coarse-textured soils under declining groundwater table situations of the Indian Punjab. Further, the validated model and the simulation results can also be extrapolated to other areas with similar climatic and soil environments in Asia where crop, soil, weather, and management data are available.     

Simulation of water dynamics and irrigation scheduling for winter wheat and maize in seasonal frost areas

Continuous cropping of winter wheat and summer maize is the main cropping pattern in North China Plain lying in a seasonal frost area. Irrigation scheduling of one crop will influence soil water regime and irrigation scheduling of the subsequent crop. Therefore, irrigation scheduling of winter wheat and maize should be studied as a whole. Considering the meteorological and crop characteristics of the area lying in a seasonal frost area, a cropping year is divided into crop growing period and frost period. Model of simultaneous moisture and heat transfer (SMHT) for the frost period and model of soil water transfer (SWT) for the crop growing period were developed, and used jointly for the simulation of soil water dynamics and irrigation scheduling for a whole cropping year. The model was calibrated and validated with field experiment of winter wheat and maize in Beijing, China. Then the model was applied to the simulation of water dynamics and irrigation scheduling with different precipitation and irrigation treatments. From the simulation results, precipitation can meet the crop water requirement of maize to a great extent, and irrigation at the seeding stage may be necessary. Precipitation and irrigation had no significant influence on evaporation and transpiration of maize. On the other hand, irrigation scheduling of winter wheat mainly depends on irrigation standard. Irrigation at the seeding stage and before soil freezing is usually necessary. For high irrigation standard, four times of irrigation are required after greening. While for medium irrigation, only once (rainy year) or twice (medium and dry years) of irrigation is required after greening. Transpiration of winter wheat is very close for high and medium irrigation, but it decreases significantly for low irrigation and will result in a reduction of crop yield. Irrigation with proper time and amount is necessary for winter wheat. Considering irrigation quota and crop transpiration comprehensively, medium irrigation is recommended for the irrigation of winter wheat in the studying area, which can reduce the irrigation quota of over 150 mm with little water stress for crop growth.     

The Effect of supplemental irrigation and nitrogen fertilisation on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

Summary Four irrigation treatments: no irrigation; early irrigation (150 mm); late irrigation (150 mm); and early+late irrigation (275 mm), with 363 mm of rain; and four basic applications of nitrogen (0, 60, 120, 180 kg ha^–1), with and without an additional nitrogen top dressing of 60 kg ha^–1, were applied to autumn-sown wheat.For any given total nitrogen rate, there was no difference between the single and the split application.Grain yields ranged from 3040 kg ha^–1 for the unirrigated, zero-nitrogen treatment to 6340 kg ha^–1 for the two irrigations, 180 kg ha ^–1 N treatment. There was a strong interaction of irrigation and nitrogen on grain yields which was due mainly to the late irrigation: in the absence of the late irrigation the optimal nitrogen rate was 120 kg hat, followed by a marked decline in yield with additional nitrogen, whereas the application of the late irrigation shifted the optimum nitrogen rate to 180 kg ha^–1. In the absence of the late irrigation, increasing the nitrogen rate from 0 to 240 kg ha ^–1 reduced kernel weight from 42 to 32 mg, whereas late irrigation largely prevented this decrease (42 to 39 mg). The reduction in kernel weight was evident even at the first nitrogen increments, in the range where grain yield was still increasing. Lack of nitrogen reduced soil moisture extraction during the grain filling stage, particularly from soil layers deeper than 60 cm.Stomatal aperture in the irrigated treatments was markedly larger in nitrogen-supplied than in nitrogen-deficient wheat, although the leaf hydration was similar; in the unirrigated treatment, the nitrogen-supplied plants had a lower hydration and smaller stomatal aperture than nitrogen-deficient plants.Contribution from the Agricultural Research Organization, Bet Dagan, Israel, No: 282-E, 1977 series     

水分调控对麦茬棉产量和水分利用效率的影响

为研究麦后移栽棉对水分调控的响应,于2012年6月~2012年10月通过人工控水试验研究了水分供应对麦后移栽棉生长、产量和品质的影响。小区试验结果表明,蕾期轻度水分亏缺花铃期充分灌水处理(T2)的籽棉产量、成铃数以及单铃质量均为最大,但蕾期和花铃期轻度水分胁迫处理(T4)的产量与处理T2差异不显著,但水分利用效率和灌溉水利用效率分别提高了23.93%和34.01%;管栽试验结果表明,对照处理(T7)的单株成铃数的收获籽棉产量均最高,与对照处理相比,全生育期轻度水分胁迫处理(T8)减产3.98%,水分利用效率和灌溉水利用效率分别提高了9.70%和20.02%;桶栽试验结果表明,灌水定额为1.6倍ETp处理(T11)的籽棉产量和单株成铃数均最高,与处理T11相比,灌水定额为1.3ETp处理(T12)的籽棉产量仅降低了9.7%,而灌水定额为1.0 ETp处理(T13)的籽棉产量降低了30%。说明适宜的水分胁迫(灌水下限为60%~65%FC,灌水上限为80%~85%FC)有利于麦后移栽棉的高产和水分利用效率的提高。