东北典型黑土区侵蚀沟形态及分布特征

东北黑土区是中国最重要的粮食生产基地之一,同时也是中国四大水蚀区之一,其中沟道侵蚀是水蚀发生的主要形式,掌握东北黑土区沟道侵蚀的基本情况,剖析其形态及分布特征,对于分析东北黑土区沟道侵蚀的成因及水土流失治理至关重要。该研究以典型黑土区嫩江县为研究区域,利用航空遥感影像及1∶5万DEM对区域内侵蚀沟进行普查统计,并分析侵蚀沟的沟宽、沟长、纵比降等形态特征,以及海拔、坡度、坡向等地形因素对侵蚀沟分布的影响,为黑土区侵蚀沟的治理提供理论依据。研究结果表明:1)沟道侵蚀主要分布在丘陵区,沟道类型以切沟为主,冲沟影响面积仅次于切沟,研究区以小于500 m的侵蚀沟为主,数量及面积分别占总数的96.67%、61.99%;2)侵蚀沟的沟宽与沟长为正相关,纵比降与沟宽、沟长为负相关;3)坡向对各类型侵蚀沟的分布影响较小,坡度对侵蚀沟的分布有一定影响,细沟和浅沟主要分布在2~6°和6~15°的坡面上,而切沟和冲沟则主要分布在0~2°、2~6°的坡面上,90%以上的细沟和浅沟、80%以上的切沟、冲沟发生在耕地上;4)嫩江县冲沟地形阈值模型拟合表明嫩江县冲沟发生的临界坡度较小,较小的坡度就能对坡面形成冲刷,出现冲沟的发生发育,而模型中主导径流过程的参数数值较小,表明嫩江县冲沟的产生可能受到地下过程的影响。     

东北黑土区沟道侵蚀现状及其防治对策

沟道侵蚀是土地退化最严重的表现形式,东北黑土区是中国除黄土高原外沟道侵蚀最为严重的区域,沟道侵蚀严重威胁东北区域农业生产和生态环境。该研究基于多年的研究积累,结合国家侵蚀沟治理专项调查和国家重点研发计划项目研究成果以及已有文献,系统总结归纳了东北黑土区沟道侵蚀特征、发展演变趋势及其危害;梳理出现有侵蚀沟治理措施的成功经验及失败教训,凝练提出区域侵蚀沟防治目标及4种主要侵蚀沟治理模式,并给出了适用范围及条件;同时提出了新时代东北黑土区侵蚀沟防治对策建议。该研究为区域现代农业发展和生态文明建设决策以及沟道侵蚀治理工程的实施提供了科技支撑。     

A Biophysical and Economic Assessment of a Community‐based Rehabilitated Gully in the Ethiopian Highlands

Gully erosion reduces agricultural productivity by destroying valuable land resources, increases sediment concentrations, reduces water quality, and fills up reservoirs. Gully rehabilitation has proven to be challenging especially in the high‐rainfall areas of the Ethiopian Highlands and has therefore had limited success. This paper describes a successful low‐cost gully rehabilitation effort with community participation in the Birr watershed in the Blue Nile basin that begun in early 2013. Initially, farmers were reluctant to participate for religious reasons, but with the aid of local priests and respected elders, community discussions, and a visit to a rehabilitated gully, a consensus was reached to rehabilitate a 0·71‐ha upland gully. The rehabilitation measures consisted of regrading the gully head at a 45° slope, constructing low‐cost check dams from locally available materials, and planting Pennisetum purpureum grass and Sesbania sesban. At the end of the first post‐implementation rainy season, 2,200 tons of soil was conserved by the constructed check dams and newly planted vegetation, compared with soil losses of 680 and 560 tons in two untreated, nearby gullies. In 2014, an additional 3,100 tons of soil was conserved. In 2013, the marginal rate of return (MRR) on the gully rehabilitation investment was 2·6 based on the value of increased forage production alone. When we include trapped soil nutrient values, the rehabilitation MRR was increased to 10. Although these numbers are impressive, the best proof of the success was that farmers on their own initiative rehabilitated an additional five gullies in 2014. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Geomorphological investigation on gully erosion in the Rift Valley and the northern highlands of Ethiopia

Gully erosion phenomena are very common in Ethiopia. They affect large areas with different morphological, pedological and climatic characteristics. The amount of soil loss due to gullying has become a very serious problem in the recent decades as it was associated to remarkable depletion of cultivated land. Field investigations on gully morphology and its genetic processes were carried out in two study areas of Ethiopia, representative of different geo-environmental conditions: the Lakes Region in the Rift portion north of Shashamene and the area surrounding the town of Mekele in Tigray.Two main types of gullies were identified on the basis of their morphological and hydraulic geometry characteristics: (1) discontinuous gullies which generally develop on low gradient slopes (1–5° on average) and the hydraulic radius of which increases from an upstream minimum to a maximum, at approximately their mid length, and decreases again to a relative minimum at their downstream end; and (2) stream gullies, formed by deep erosion processes typically migrating upslope. In order to investigate the main causes originating the different types of gullies, shear stress data were collected in the field from their hydraulic geometry. Hypotheses on the mechanisms responsible for both discontinuous and stream gullies development and for their different characteristics are discussed considering the pattern of shear stress variation in the downstream direction.     

土壤理化及力学性质对干热河谷台地边坡沟蚀发育的影响

金沙江干热河谷土地整理台地边坡沟蚀发育严重,水土流失强烈,高投入的土地整理工程效益难以发挥,严重威胁着该区的生态安全和社会经济发展。为查明干热河谷土地整理台地边坡沟蚀发育关键影响因子、防治台地边坡沟蚀发育,该研究采用野外实地测量法和实验室测定的方法,研究了干热河谷土地整理台地边坡的沟蚀发育形态特征,系统分析了土壤理化性质和力学性质对台地边坡沟蚀发育形态特征的影响。结果表明:1)非毛管孔隙度是影响台地边坡沟蚀发育形态特征的主要指标,但非毛管孔隙度对台地边坡沟蚀发育宽度、深度、截面积、密度以及割裂度的影响形式和影响程度有较大差异。2)抗剪强度仅对台地边坡沟道深度和截面积影响显著,而对沟道宽度、密度和割裂度的影响甚微。3)分散率对台地边坡沟道宽度和割裂度的影响较为明显,对沟道深度、截面积和密度无显著影响。4)沟道宽度和密度均主要受非毛管孔隙度控制,割裂度受分散率的影响最大,但沟道深度和沟道截面积受土壤性质的影响相对较弱。     

金沙江干热河谷冲沟形态发育特征及其侵蚀速率估算

冲沟侵蚀是金沙江干热河谷土壤流失的重要原因，造成严重的土地退化，威胁区域农业发展和粮食安全。探究冲沟的形态发育特征明确其侵蚀速率，对于冲沟侵蚀量化评估和土地保护等具有重要意义。为摸清冲沟发育演变规律，该研究选取元谋干热河谷金雷国家水土保持科技示范园区附近沟谷地貌流域为研究区，选择35条冲沟，通过无人机遥感影像提取冲沟形态参数，分析形态特征，并结合高分遥感影像计算冲沟侵蚀速率。结果表明：1）研究区冲沟直线长度、顶宽、底宽、深度的范围分别为25.21～180.43 、10.76～51.76、3.56～26.85、1.22～11.92 m；面积、体积的范围分别为257.50～8987.88 m²、142.64～19479.25 m³。冲沟形态参数差异性较大，长度在发育过程中受坡面限制小于其他地区。2）冲沟底部宽度和顶部宽度比值（BW/TW）的范围为0.24～0.59，冲沟主要为“V型”和“V～U型”；冲沟顶部宽度和深度比值（TW/D）的范围为2.56～26.29，均值为6.04，横向侵蚀速率远大于下切侵蚀速率。3）2015—2022年，35条冲沟中，19条长度明显增长，冲沟溯源侵蚀速率为0.02～1.10 m/a（均值0.34 m/a）；27条宽度明显增长，冲沟横向侵蚀速率为0.07～1.10m/a（均值0.36 m/a）；29条面积和体积明显增长，冲沟面积增长速率为1.64～105.40 m²/a（均值23.44 m²/a）；冲沟体积侵蚀速率为1.26～339.42 m³/a（均值51.21 m³/a）。冲沟横向侵蚀速率大于溯源侵蚀速率，在面积和体积增长中贡献较大。研究结果可为金沙江干热河谷地区大尺度冲沟的发育演变规律和侵蚀定量评估提供方法和依据。     

陕北黄土区退耕前（1976—1997）坡面切沟发育特征

以陕北黄土区坊塌流域内7条大切沟及其谷缘上的小切沟为研究对象,通过Arc GIS和MATLAB从基于1976、1997年1:10000比例尺地形图生成的数字高程模型(DEM)上提取沟沿线,进而获得1976、1997年大切沟的面积、周长和大切沟上小切沟沟头前进距离,并结合当时的土地利用图和植被覆盖图,定量研究了退耕前陕北黄土区切沟发育的速率,以及土地利用类型和植被覆盖度对切沟发育的影响.结果显示:在1976-1997年间,7条大切沟的面积、周长增长率分别为11.01%~180.46%和8.07%~86.75%,大切沟上小切沟沟头年均前进速率为0.26~0.84m;由溯源侵蚀导致的小切沟沟头前进是研究区内大切沟上的主要侵蚀方式,大切沟沟谷拓宽和形成新的小切沟分别是对大切沟的面积和周长增长具有较高贡献率的侵蚀方式;林草覆盖能控制切沟发育,集水区内覆盖度大于65%的植被能更加有效地控制大切沟内以沟谷拓宽为主的、多过程、多部位的综合切沟侵蚀,覆盖度大于45%的植被能更加有效地控制大切沟上小切沟沟头的溯源侵蚀.研究表明基于GIS技术和不同年份的地形图,可以确定切沟侵蚀的方式及速率,实现对切沟发育的动态监测.     

Estimating the rate and consequences of gully development,a case study of umbulo catchment in Southern Ethiopia

In southern Ethiopia wide and deep gullies are common features, significantly affecting farmers' livelihoods. Little action is being taken to address the problem despite farmers being knowledgeable about erosion and its control measures. A study was conduced to investigate the nature and rate of gully development in Umbulo catchment, southern Ethiopia, based on interviews with farmers and field measurements. The results indicated a rapid, down slope development of gullies over the last 30 years with average rate of soil loss from 11 to 30 t ha⁻¹ y⁻¹. The critical period of development of the gully system was estimated to be between 1974 and 1985, but since then the gully system has enlarged both in depth and width. Wide channels with deep, nearly vertical walls are typical. The trigger for gully initiation is believed to have been human, but the soil properties may have played an important role. Under the current situation agricultural production is unsustainable unless the gullies are controlled using integrated measures at the catchment scale. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

近40 a黑土典型区坡沟侵蚀动态变化

研究黑土区坡面侵蚀与沟谷侵蚀的动态变化对于正确认识黑土侵蚀的发生发展过程、制定合理的侵蚀防治对策具有重要理论与实际意义。该文以克拜东部黑土区为例,从1965年美国侦查卫星Corona影像和2005年法国Spot-5高分辨率遥感影像上提取侵蚀沟、植被、土地利用等信息,结合地形、降雨及土壤资料,以通用土壤流失方程为基本框架建立坡面侵蚀定量估算模型,在此基础上,对近40 a坡面侵蚀和沟谷侵蚀的动态变化进行深入分析。结果表明：研究区坡面侵蚀以轻度侵蚀为主,中度和强度侵蚀面积比例很小;40 a来坡面侵蚀总面积变化不大,但侵蚀强度的变化存在一定的地区差异;研究区1965年有侵蚀沟1 682条,2005年增加到2 561条,侵蚀沟平均每年侵吞耕地5.23 hm2;40 a来研究区坡沟侵蚀产沙比约为3.5︰1,总体上以坡面土壤流失为主。研究结果可为黑土区水土流失综合治理提供科学依据。     

Spatiotemporal distribution of soil moisture in gully facies

Gully erosion is one of the most important forms of land degradation in many regions of the world. Understanding the process of gully erosion therefore is important for better management of the watersheds prone to gully erosion. However, many different aspects of gully erosion, like hydrological behavior, are still not fully understood. The present study investigates the spatial distribution of soil moisture content (SMC), as one of the hydrological factors, at different depths and points across the cross section in the vicinity of the headcut of three gullies located in the Kalat County, Khorasan Razavi Province, Iran. SMCs were measured at depths of 10, 20, 30, 50, 70 and 100 cm at each seven points across the study cross sections one to three days after occurrence of three rain events. Two sampling points were symmetrically located at a distance of 50 cm outside the gully banks, two at the vertex of the sidewalls, two in the middle of the sidewalls and one at the center of gully cross section. SMCs were measured using a weighted method. Results of the study revealed a broad range of changes in SMCs at various depths and points. The minimum and maximum SMCs were found to be about 2% and 38%, respectively, for the study period and gullies under consideration. The coefficient of variation (CV) had drastic changes for various gullies and storm events from 2 to 107%. Results further indicated that SMC moved from the sidewalls towards the floor of the cross section. Accordingly, the maximum SMC for storm events was associated with the point located in the center of gullies, which indicated the role of gully system in draining soil moisture. The findings of this study will help watershed managers understand the important role of gully facies in changing water content of the soil that affects other ecohydrological processes.     

Using high-resolution aerial images to study gully development at the regional scale in southern China

There are 239,100 gullies in southern China, which cause the degradation of ecological system. However, studies on gully development at the regional scale is relatively lack. The purpose of this study is to analyze the regional gully dynamics and explore how land use and topographic factors affect gully development. Input data consists of land use maps derived from high-resolution images from 2004 to 2014, and topography maps from a digital elevation model with a pixel size of 8 m × 8 m in two 25-km² study sites of Anxi (AX) and Xingning county (XN). The following results were obtained: (1) AX gullies decreased from 2006 to 2014 while XN first increased from 2004 to 2009, and then decreased from 2009 to 2014. Both AX and XN gully area in percentage of the total area ranged from 1% to 3%, which was higher than the average 0.25% of the whole southern China by the artificial survey in 2005. (2) Most of AX and XN gullies occurred along the ridgeline and had the close relationships with the upstream contributing area and slope gradient. (3) New gullies developed on the exposed land and forestland. The lost gullies were converted into forestland and grassland. In fact, most of these gullies were only covered by vegetation, not real disappearance. These results proved that gully decreased, but construction of roads and buildings intensified gully development. Consequently, these findings reveal that vegetation protection and ecological restoration should be adopted in southern China.     

基于RS和GIS的黄土丘陵沟壑区浅沟侵蚀地形特征研究

为了解黄土高原浅沟侵蚀地形特征,基于Qucickbird高分辨率遥感影像和数字高程模型,提取了坡面浅沟及其地形参数,并对浅沟侵蚀的地形特征参数和分布规律进行了统计分析,结果表明：黄土丘陵沟壑区,坡面坡度、长度、坡向以及上坡长度是影响坡面浅沟数量的主要地形要素,而浅沟侵蚀地形特征主要由坡面坡度、坡面长度、上坡长度和汇流面积共同决定;坡面长度与浅沟平均长度呈显著线性关系,坡面坡度与浅沟频度、浅沟坡度与其上坡长度间则均满足二次曲线;发生浅沟侵蚀的上限与下限临界坡度分别介于26～27°和15～20°,临界坡长介于50～80 m;由浅沟坡度的正弦值与汇流面积确定出浅沟分布的临界曲线;阳向坡面的平均浅沟长度小于阴向坡面。基于RS和GIS技术能有效确定浅沟侵蚀地形特征,为黄土区坡面水土流失治理提供了技术支撑。     

Ephemeral gully recognition and accuracy evaluation using deep learning in the hilly and gully region of the Loess Plateau in China

Ephemeral gullies are widely distributed in the hilly and gully region of the Loess Plateau and play a unique role in the slope gully erosion system. Rapid and accurate identification of ephemeral gullies impacts the distribution law and development trend of soil erosion on the Loess Plateau. Deep learning algorithms can quickly and accurately process large data samples that recognize ephemeral gullies from remote sensing images. Here, we investigated ephemeral gullies in the Zhoutungou watershed in the hilly and gully region of the Loess Plateau in China using satellite and unmanned aerial vehicle images and combined a deep learning image semantic segmentation model to realize automatic recognition and feature extraction. Using Accuracy, Precision, Recall, F1value, and AUC, we compared the ephemeral gully recognition results and accuracy evaluation of U-Net, R2U-Net, and SegNet image semantic segmentation models. The SegNet model was ranked first, followed by the R2U-Net and U-Net models, for ephemeral gully recognition in the hilly and gully region of the Loess Plateau. The ephemeral gully length and width between predicted and measured values had RMSE values of 6.78 m and 0.50 m, respectively, indicating that the model has an excellent recognition effect. This study identified a fast and accurate method for ephemeral gully recognition in the hilly and gully region of the Loess Plateau based on remote sensing images to provide an academic reference and practical guidance for soil erosion monitoring and slope and gully management in the Loess Plateau region.     

基于历史卫星影像估算黄土丘陵区冲沟发育速率

沟谷侵蚀是黄土高原河流泥沙的主要来源,对土地资源的破坏性极大.为评估黄土高原丘陵沟壑区冲沟的中长期发育速率,该研究选取黄土高原丘陵区第一副区绥德县枣林坪流域为研究区,使用1968年的KH-4B卫星影像、2021年高分7号卫星影像及立体像对,估算近53年来冲沟的发育速率,探究冲沟体积-面积关系.结果表明:1)在35条调查...     

基于GPS与GIS 技术的长江上游山地冲沟的分布特征研究

长江上游山地生态环境十分脆弱，冲沟系统广泛分布，但对该区冲沟的发生演变一直缺乏定量研究数据。以西昌长山岭地区为对象，应用RTK-GPS对该区冲沟系统进行测量，建立数字高程模型（DEM）；同时基于GIS技术，探讨了从DEM上提取冲沟系统的方法，并以实测冲沟系统为依据，对所提取的冲沟系统的精度进行了对比分析。结果表明，利用DEM提取冲沟系统是一种快速、有效的方法。与此同时，分析了长江上游地区山地冲沟系统的分布特征，结果表明，小流域的沟壑密度为46．7m／hm^2，冲沟侵蚀速率高达191．9t／（hm^2．a），小流域内的土壤侵蚀为极强度土壤侵蚀，以控制冲沟侵蚀为主的水土保持措施，是该地区生态环境建设中值得重视的关键问题。     

Equation for high-rate gully erosion

An approach to gully erosion is presented in this paper. The approach is based on general equations derived from theoretical considerations. The equations apply to a situation of intense erosion rate, such as at peak discharge during the few critical rainstorms, able to generate or to widen gullies.Equations linking gully widening to gully deepening are derived. They do not depend on the way in which concentrated flow aggressiveness is estimated. The equation expressing gully width/depth relationship was successfully compared with data from the literature.When runoff aggressiveness was estimated through unit stream power and bottom flow shear stress, the width/discharge relationships found were similar to those expected on the basis of previous studies (e.g., Leopold and Maddock [U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 252 (1953) 57 pp.]) even if slope gradient explicitly appears in contrast with empirical evidence. Only threshold conditions for gullies indicate that flow shear stress (for laminar flow conditions) can explain the observed trends. This astonishing result most probably indicates that gully initiation needs more complex contexts to be explained than the one here used (based on a Montgomery and Dietrich [1994. Landscape dissection and drainage area–slope thresholds. In: M.J. Kirkby (ed.), Process Models and Theoretical Geomorphology. Wiley, 221–246] approach).A selection of the proposed equations have been arranged into a research model and an example of the outcome has been given for two situations typical of cropland in southern Tuscany (Italy). The results indicate that the spatial distribution of soil characteristics and of land use influences significantly gully generation and evolution. This further confirms that gully morphological thresholds cannot be explained by simple approaches.     

东北黑土区侵蚀沟发展状况及其对粮食安全的影响

通过对东北黑土区典型流域1965和2005年各种类型侵蚀沟的数量、长度、密度、面积(主要为吞食耕地面积)和分布情况以及40年来侵蚀沟的时空变化特征等进行分析,研究东北黑土区侵蚀沟发展状况对粮食安全的影响。结果表明:1)从1965至2005年的40年,研究区侵蚀沟总面积增加85.27 km2,条数增加13 168条,总长度增加6 183.70 km,沟壑密度由1965年的0.034 km/km2变化为2005年的0.193 km/km2,侵蚀沟条数、面积和密度呈快速增加趋势;2)40年间,耕地上的侵蚀沟面积增加81.83 km2,条数增加12 825条,长度增加5 981.23 km,沟壑密度增加0.271 km/km2,林地与其他用地上的侵蚀沟面积增加3.44 km2,条数增加343条,长度增加202.47 km,沟壑密度增加0.02 km/km2;3)典型黑土区侵蚀沟发生在耕地上的比例极大,其中面积所占比例达96%,条数所占比例达97.4%,说明40年来侵蚀沟的发展主要在耕地上。研究结果对区域的粮食生产和国家的粮食安全具有重要意义。     

1970－2021年典型黑土区侵蚀沟损毁耕地速度与发育阶段

黑土区侵蚀沟损毁耕地,威胁粮食生产,研究侵蚀沟发展速度与发育现状,对揭示侵蚀沟发育机理和保护黑土地具有重要意义。为研究近50年侵蚀沟损毁耕地速度和发育特征,分别在典型黑土区3个纬度带选取坡度约为1%、2%和3%的9个共计约378 km²的典型黑土农田单元,并利用1970年、2011年和2021年卫星影像结合无人机和地面测量的结果进行计算与统计。结果表明,侵蚀沟数量在3个历史时期持续增加,剔除因治理而消失的311条,实际增加了958条,北部嫩江增加速度高于中部海伦和南部巴彦,而同一纬度区大坡度（3%）比小坡度（1%和2%）农田单元内侵蚀沟数量增长更快。人为治理和更高强度耕种导致侵蚀沟面积降低（1970－2011年）然后再增加（2011－2021年）的V型走势,但由侵蚀沟发育而实际损毁耕地的面积持续扩张,近10年年均损毁耕地面积0.1%,3个区域的损毁速度相近。从南往北3个区域侵蚀沟起始发育时间分别是1920s、1940s和1950s,与开垦时间先后顺序一致。典型黑土区侵蚀沟经历了谷底沟发育、沟系形成、多样化发育3个阶段,其中嫩江处在第二阶段,而海伦和巴彦处在第三阶段,即老沟、新沟、次生沟、浅沟多样化发育阶段。人为治理和促进侵蚀沟发育的较量,决定典型黑土区侵蚀沟的发育走势。研究为典型黑土区侵蚀沟防治提供科学依据。     

黄土区坡耕地耕作对浅沟径流产沙及其形态发育特征的影响

为研究耕作对浅沟径流产沙及形态发育特征的影响,在野外调查的基础上,设计坡度(15°、20°、25°)、雨强(1.0、1.5、2.0 mm/min)及放水流量(7.53~23.45 L/min)3个处理,采用室内模拟降雨和放水冲刷的方法,测定了不同处理下浅沟径流量、产沙量。结果表明:1)2种浅沟水流均为紊流,耕作使浅沟水流雷诺数和弗劳德数分别减小0.95%~30.77%、2.64%~39.14%,阻力系数和糙率系数分别增加4.01%~58.82%、0.88%~27.87%;2)试验条件下,耕作使浅沟土壤剥蚀率增大9.48%~37.87%,未耕作与耕作浅沟土壤剥蚀率分别与坡度—流量交互作用、雨强—坡度交互作用呈极显著线性关系,土壤剥蚀率与径流剪切力、径流功率及单位径流功率均呈显著的线性关系,未耕作浅沟发生剥蚀的临界剪切力、临界功率及临界单位径流功率分别为17.576 N/m2、5.036 W/(m2·s)、0.0381 m/s,耕作浅沟为10.585 N/m2、3.544 W/(m2·s)、0.0277 m/s;3)耕作使浅沟宽度增加1.98%~31.79%,浅沟面积增大0.84%~32.03%,下切深度降低2.82%~26.67%;4)耕作使浅沟土壤侵蚀量增加0.91%~22.80%,未耕作和耕作浅沟土壤侵蚀量分别占坡面土壤侵蚀总量的44.09%~74.16%和42.44%~56.44%,与雨强—流量交互作用均呈极显著的线性函数关系。结果可为该区浅沟侵蚀预测模型的建立及农业生态环境安全与保护提供科学依据。     

Rill and gully development during an extreme winter runoff event in Norway

Erosion on agricultural fields in Norway has earlier been reported to be mainly sheet and minor rill erosion. Exceptional rainfall events during January and February (230% of 30 years monthly mean) in 1990 led to extreme runoff and widespread erosion also on areas normally not considered to have a high erosion risk. This study presents the results of a field survey in three counties where rills and ephemeral gullies were measured after this event. Shifting weather conditions with freezing and thawing had given frozen subsoil. Topsoil conditions varied from ice- and snow-covered surface to thawed surface with frozen subsoil. In one of the areas with a high clay content, only the upper topsoil layer was unfrozen during this event. Extended sheet erosion and smaller rills occurred. In the southernmost locations, more of the topsoil profile was unfrozen. Combined with a high silt/sand content, more severe rilling and ephemeral gullies developed. Gullies developed down to the depth of the drainpipes in all locations. This erosion equals soil losses of more than 100 tons ha⁻¹ or 8–9 mm soil lost from the entire field area. Different mechanisms for gully development were registered. Gullies developed as enlarged rills with headward migration and sidewall sloughing. Knickpoints in the slope could also lead to gully development. Concentrated water flow entering the field from farmyards, roads, neighbouring fields and woods could be the starting point for uncontrolled rilling and ephemeral gullying. The combination of frozen subsoil, saturated soil with low strength and intense rainfall led to gully development also on areas with gentle slopes, especially sandy soils. Management practices like crop cover, tillage and lack of surface water control highly influenced the development of gullies.