Nepalese non-timber forest products: An analysis of the equitability of profit distribution across a supply chain to India

The collection and sale of non-timber forest products is a major source of livelihood in some regions of Nepal. The research reported in this paper compares the resource rent or contribution margin of collectors, village traders, Nepali wholesalers and Indian traders for two highly traded non-timber forest products of Nepal, namely asparagus and lichen. The causes of inequitable margins are investigated, and measures for increasing equity within the supply chain are identified. The research revealed that the margin of asparagus collectors was higher than for the lichen collectors, as lichen was subjected to the high transaction costs of illegal exports. Furthermore, collectors who stayed overnight in the forest during the collection period (overnight-stayers) to reduce travelling time had a higher margin than those who went home every day after collection (non-overnight-stayers). In four distinct trading chains analysed, Nepali wholesalers and Indian traders captured most of the resource rent. The difference in collection costs between overnight-stayers and non-overnight-stayers does not affect the margin of other stakeholders in the value chain. It was hypothesised that the inequity is exacerbated by a low level of understanding of marketing among collectors, and this is confirmed by survey results. It is argued that the margin of collectors could be increased by providing training, technical support, market and price information, and other forms of institutional support.     

The Non-Timber Forest Products Sector in Nepal: Emerging Policy Issues in Plant Conservation and Utilization for Sustainable Development

The non-timber forest products (NTFPs) sector in Nepal is being promoted with the concept of sustainable development as articulated by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Traditionally, people have been dependent on NTFPs for subsistence; however, international trade is growing. To promote this sector, Nepal adopted the 2004 Herbs and NTFP Development Policy. Our goal is to assess the effectiveness of the policy along with the other forestry and natural resource policies in Nepal concerning the conservation and use of NTFPs. We conducted open-ended semi-structured interviews with 28 key informants in summer 2006 in Nepal and collected relevant documents and publications. Qualitative analyses of data yielded important issues that should be addressed to promote the sector as envisioned by the Government. The most important is the need for inventory and research on NTFP species in widespread use. There are some issues regarding species banned under various other National Acts; the lack of marketing information and capacity building; administrative barriers; royalty rates; and illegal harvesting. The most important immediate need is the development of an NTFP Strategy and Action Plan. Our findings should help further implement the policy and promote the sector along the stated mission of conservation and sustainable development.     

Estimating the demand for non-timber forest products among rural communities: a case study from the Sinharaja Rain Forest region,Sri Lanka

Lack of adequate knowledge on forest-people interaction is an important reason for the failure of many conservation policies. This study focuses on the behavior of peripheral communities towards non-timber forest product (NTFP) harvesting by estimating the demand functions for NTFP. The paper develops a theoretical model for deriving the shadow price for NTFP using time allocation among different economic activities. Then it tests the competitive time allocation hypothesis between NTFP extraction and tea plantations, the predominant agricultural sector in the vicinity of Sinharaja rain forest. Results provide statistical evidence for the existence of competitive time allocation between tea plantations and NTFP extraction. Own-price elasticities are consistently inelastic, except for one product. As indicated by the inelastic responses, pricing policies may not be very useful in manipulating subsistence NTFP extraction. Repeating similar studies for commercial NTFPs is encouraged.     

Constraints and opportunities to forest policy implementation in Albania

Although forest statutes are formulated with the intent of achieving selected goals and objectives, the gap between such intent and the actual implementation remains wide in Albania. Even though the current unstable political and economic situation has made forest policy implementation uncertain and disordered, it is still possible to fit the process into models and frameworks. In a ‘top-down’ approach, the constraints that lead to implementation failures are identified and assessed by analysing factors or variables thought to influence the process. An active involvement of the stakeholders in the formulation of forest policies will considerably facilitate the process of choosing effective policy tools according to criteria adopted. Policy makers in Albania should utilise more incentive-based approaches in addition to punitive measures that dominate the current forest legislation. Developing the evaluation capacity of forestry-related institutions will assist in the formulation of appropriate policies and increase the chances of successful implementation.     

Barriers to policy implementation and implications for Zambia's forest ecosystems

Policies play a vital role in setting priorities and actions for forest use and management. High rates of forest loss can be attributed to failure by policies to reduce deforestation and forest degradation. It is argued that in most Least Developed Countries such as Zambia, adopted forest and natural resources policies are rarely put into effect resulting in ecosystem degradation.This study examined policy actor's perception of implementation of policies aimed at reducing deforestation and forest degradation and their implications for forest resources.To examine policy implementation, 55 policy actors were interviewed at national, regional and local levels. This included government officials, Non-Governmental Organisations, traditional leaders and local people. Interviews were analysed using discourse analysis.Findings show that policy implementations deficits are prevalent in Zambia's forest sector. Policy actors identified the main barriers as inadequate institutional capacity, inadequate legal framework, political influences, insecure land tenure, poor funding, and lack of intersectoral coordination. The paper has shown gaps between policies and their implementation. To halt deforestation and forest degradation, it is imperative that formulated policies are implemented. This will require improved communication and coordination among government units and various stakeholders, sufficient resources and harmonizing policies and legal frameworks.     

The compatibility of timber and non-timber forest product extraction and management

We discuss the extent of compatibility of timber and non-timber forest product (NTFP) extraction in two neotropical localities from biophysical, social, and institutional perspectives: the community concession forests of the Petén, Guatemala, and extractivist communities in northern Bolivia. In both localities, timber is harvested via reduced-impact logging (RIL) practices. In Guatemala, the main NTFP extracted is foliage from the understory xate palm (Chamaedorea spp.); in northern Bolivia, the fruits of the Brazil nut tree (Bertholletia excelsa). The Guatemalan case suggests a relatively high degree of compatibility due to low timber harvesting intensities, coupled with temporal, spatial, and social segregation of xate extraction in a well-defined land tenure system. In northern Bolivia, forest management regulations pay little attention to NTFPs and land tenure issues and related conflict complicate efforts to limit timber harvesting impacts on Brazil nut trees. The introduction of timber management plans overlain on customary property rights systems in which the extraction of Brazil nut is organized could undercut its management system. The two case studies suggest that specific legislative, education, and project interventions may help to promote the compatibility of timber and NTFP extraction and management. These include formal training of foresters on NTFP ecology and management while taking into account the perspectives of multiple stakeholders in the design of management plans. Tropical forest users, research managers, and policy makers will also better understand the need for integrated management of timber and NTFPs, if the trade-offs and potential economic benefits from NTFP extraction are clarified.     

Ecological, socio-cultural, economic and political factors influencing the contribution of non-timber forest products to local livelihoods: Case studies from honduras and the Philippines

Discussion of the role of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in efforts to reconcile the objectives of forest conservation and rural development has often been hampered by limited understanding of the complexity of the factors that affect the contribution of NTFPs to local livelihoods. By drawing upon two case studies where NTFPs play an important role - the municipality of Lepaterique in Honduras and Palawan Island in the Philippines - this study emphasizes that an ideal extractive system should be based on a mix of products to enable sustainable harvesting throughout the year. The study also demonstrates that considerable attention needs to be paid to the socio-cultural heterogeneity of resource users, and to the value chain structure, access and control over resources and political transparency that affect the opportunities for local people to benefit from NTFP extraction.     

非木质林产品认证发展现状

对比现有的非木质林产品认证标准,分析当前非木质林产品认证现状,提出对我国发展非木质林产品认证的几点建议,包括完善非木质林产品认证标准、推进非木质林产品认证标准的国际互认、优先发展有市场前景产品的认证和加强对非木质林产品认证的宣传等。     

Compatibility of timber and non-timber forest product management in natural tropical forests: Perspectives,challenges, and opportunities

Tropical forests could satisfy multiple demands for goods and services both for present and future generations. Yet integrated approaches to natural forest management remain elusive across the tropics. In this paper we examine one combination of uses: selective harvesting of timber and non-timber forest product (NTFP) extraction. We analyze the current status of this combination and speculate on prospects and challenges regarding: (i) resource inventory, (ii) ecology and silviculture, (iii) conflict in the use of multipurpose tree species, (iv) wildlife conservation and use, (v) tenure, and (vi) product certification. Our conclusions remain preliminary due to the relative paucity of published studies and lessons learned on what has worked and what has not in the context of integrated management for timber and NTFPs. We propose at least three ways where further research is merited. One, in improving ‘opportunistic’ situations driven by selective timber harvesting that also enhance NTFP values. Two, to explicitly enhance both timber and NTFP values through targeted management interventions. Three, to explicitly assess biophysical, social, regulatory and institutional aspects so that combined benefits are maximized. Interventions for enhancing the compatibility of timber and NTFP extraction must be scaled in relation to the size of the area being managed, applied timber harvesting intensities, and the dynamics of multi-actor, forest partnerships (e.g., between the private sector and local communities). In addition, training and education issues may have to be re-crafted with multiple-use management approaches inserted into tropical forestry curricula.     

The power of knowledge: information transfer and açaí intensification in the peri-urban interface of Belém,Brazil

Academic scholarship and development paradigms promote non-timber forest products (NTFPs) as potential options to link environmental conservation with sustainable economic development objectives for rural communities worldwide. The açaí berry (Euterpe oleracea) is a native palm found in forest ecosystems of northern Brazil and historically extracted and sold in regional markets. Recent increases in national and international açaí demand have resulted in dramatic price increases. Management decisions on a local producer level reflect trends not typically associated with traditional NTFPs as future production and income expectations increase. This case study draws on research conducted in peri-urban communities in close proximity to Belém, Brazil. The work draws links between recent açaí intensification trends in upland areas and information pathways that are contributing to this pattern. This paper argues that external information sources regarding land use choices are prioritized over local knowledge and market indicators which previously have been described as drivers for intensification processes of NTFPs. This qualitative analysis highlights the power structures that influence information sharing and in turn, land use choices on a community level. The results of this analysis are important for NTFP intervention initiatives focused on risk management for smallholders. Finally, this study is a useful complement for ecological studies currently being conducted on intensification processes of non-timber forest products.     

中葡非木质林产品认证标准比较

中国森林认证体系与葡萄牙森林认证体系均为PEFC认可的森林认证体系,中葡2国是通过PEFC认证的非木质林产品经营单位数量最多的2个国家。文中对中葡2国的森林认证体系、非木质林产品认证相关标准及认证程序进行了比较,发现2国认证体系在标准结构、认证程序、认证不符合项的整改时间、证书的有效期方面存在差异,但认证标准在内容上均有相对应的条款;研究结果可为中国森林认证体系的改进以及非木质林产品经营单位选择认证体系及认证机构提供参考。     

Information and Training Needs of Non-Timber Forest Products' Operators in Southern Nigeria

Abstract

This study examined the training needs of non-timber forest products' (NTFP) operators in Southern Nigeria. One hundred-fifty forest operators in Ondo State, Nigeria were sampled using structured questionnaire. Data collected was analyzed using percentages, mean, Chi-square test, and Pearson Product Moment Correlation. The results revealed that majority of the forest operators in Southern Nigeria are middle-aged women with low level of education. The need for training is high and significant (P < 0.05), and there is a positive relationship between training/ information received and the operators's productivity.     

Options for Non-Timber Forest Product Management in the Condor Bioreserve,Ecuador

Abstract

This paper describes and evaluates the current role that non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and their users play on the conservation of the four protected areas-Reserva Ecológica Cayambe-Coca, Reserva Ecológica Antisana, Parque Nacional Cotopaxi, and Parque Nacional Sumaco-Napo Galeras-that comprise the Condor Bioreserve. The category non-timber forest product (also referred to as non-wood forest product) encompasses a myriad of resources that reside in forests and can be useful to people. Plants from which NTFPs are derived play essential roles in tropical forest ecosystem processes such as regeneration and nutrient cycling. In the Condor Bioreserve, certain species of such plants are commercially valuable while others are endangered. People are extracting these NTFPs from the Bioreserve, yet the magnitude and frequency of such extraction is unknown. This paper examines how the three groups of land users that have been identified by The Nature Conservancy-colonists, indigenous peoples, and hacienda owners-may utilize NTFPs. Understanding the role that these plants play in the lives of its collectors is imperative for designing effective strategies to alleviate pressure that extraction may place on the Condor Bioreserve ecosystems. Data on who harvests NTFPs, which plant parts they use, what quantities they harvest, and harvest frequency must be complemented by insight into how each group benefits from these activities. Moreover, an unbiased approach must examine how NTFP extraction may enhance certain ecosystems in addition to ways in which it may hurt Bioreserve resource ecosystems.     

Income Options for the Poorest of the Poor: The Case of Cardamom in Northern Laos

This study examines the potential of cardamom for poverty alleviation and sustainable rural development under conditions of increased resource scarcity in the uplands of northern Laos. Drawing on both qualitative and quantitative fieldwork in Luang Namtha province, the supply chain of cardamom is identified and the socio-economic opportunities for collectors and growers are examined. Rising demand in neighbouring countries, particularly China, provide sound income opportunities for all actors in the cardamom supply chain. Growing improved varieties has become a boon for farmers endowed with relatively large land areas with suitable agro-ecological conditions. However, land-poor and landless collectors of wild cardamom are facing increasing difficulties due to overharvesting, lower prices offered by middlemen, and the rapid conversion of remaining forests into monoculture plantations, especially rubber, which has reduced the natural habitat of cardamom and other non-timber forest products. The major policy implication is that protecting the remaining natural and secondary forests—for instance through making use of evolving international support mechanisms for community-based forest protection, including REDD-plus—will not only be of benefit for biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation, but would also enhance the livelihoods of the poorest groups in the uplands of northern Laos.     

Measuring Marketing Channel Efficiency and Strategy to Improve Income to Local Communities Dependent on Tropical Forests

Abstract

Quantification of channel efficiency in the marketing of non-timber forest products (NTFP) is essential for developing strategies to improve income to communities dependent on forests at existing harvest levels. A methodology for quantification of marketing channel efficiency is suggested. For illustrative purposes the method has been applied to a small sample of four NTFP gathered in twelve villages and the associated market functionaries in India. The NTFP gatherers' share in the consumer price and profit earned by a manufacturing unit from NTFP has been estimated. An attempt has been made to relate these two estimates to the marketing channel efficiency for the NTFP. An analysis of the marketing channel efficiency formulation shows that the operation cost in an organization is a constraint limiting the gatherers' share in the consumer price.     

Rural Governance, Forestry, and the Promotion of Local Knowledge: The Case of the German Rural Development Program ‘Active Regions’

This article investigates the role of local knowledge in the policy approach of neo-endogenous rural development, which may be held by local and regional actors such as municipal and county level politicians, local and regional level administration, entrepreneurs as well as local third sector representatives. The main question addressed is whether local knowledge under this approach is merely mobilised or if rural development processes are even based on such knowledge, placing it at the centre of such policy. The relevance of this approach to forestry is also explored. The types of forest owners for which the neo-endogenous rural development approach is appropriate and the types that may have difficulties in coping with this cross-sectoral and area-based approach are especially examined. Using a case study design on the German Active Regions funding program it is shown that the neo-endogenous approach is most relevant to large private forest owners and small-scale corporate enterprises, but also has potential for small- and medium-sized private owners. Concerning the role of knowledge held by local and regional actors, the approach is shown to largely build on the use of local expertise, and hence policy acceptance increases. However, scientific knowledge as well as politics are found to play a major role in the use, production and interpretation of local knowledge.     

NTFP income contribution to household economy and related socio-economic factors: Lessons from Bangladesh

Exploring extent and pattern of non-timber forest product (NTFP) income contribution to livelihoods of forest-adjacent people and the income related socio-economic factors is crucial in designing any development and conservation initiative. This paper examines NTFPs' role in contributing to the household economy and how different socio-economic factors may influence this contribution. Field methods involved quantitative and qualitative data collection of forest-adjacent households of Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh. Results show that the contribution of different types of NTFPs to household economy varies in terms of subsistence and cash income. However, overall NTFP income is much higher than income from timber or firewood which indicates a larger dependence of the households on NTFPs. Income data analysis also finds that the poor households are relatively more dependent on NTFPs for their subsistence and cash income than the better-off households. Moreover, the study reveals that there are many other socio-economic factors at the household level such as number of members in household and total value of household implements and furniture that are significantly correlated with the NTFP income. More site-specific applied research on NTFP income and influential factors is necessary to generalize the findings for other parts of the world with similar socio-economic and environmental settings.     

金平县林产业发展探讨

金平县2007年林业产值为1．91亿元，占全县农业总产值的35％，是林业重点县．该县具有发展林产业的优势项目，包括橡胶种植业、竹藤产业、木本油料（油荼）业、核桃特色经济林产业、杉木珍贵用材林产业以及草果林下资源开发等．分析了林产业发展的有利和不利因素．进行了产业发展规划和布局．提出加快集体林权制度改革、加大资金投入、加强科技支撑、扶持龙头企业、组建专业合作组织等保障措施．     

Carbon sink by the forest sector—options and needs for implementation

The important role of forests in the carbon cycle suggests that the management of forests might be used to offset emissions. Newly developing markets will support these socially desirable ends only if a new specified policy framework is formulated and the landowners develop individually tailored projects. From the point of view of the developing countries, carbon-sink policy needs to be integrated in an overall policy against deforestation and forest degradation. Managing the risk of climatic change is an underestimated challenge for all branches of forest science and might bring dramatic changes to all stakeholders in the forest sector. Most worrisome is the current state of the quality of global forest information. But further uneasy scientific questions about forest carbon sinks remain open.     

Why Is Non-Timber Forest Product Harvesting an “Issue”?

Summary

Despite an encouraging trend in North America of growing interest across a range of disciplines in non-timber forest products (e.g., this volume), NTFP harvesters' knowledge and practices continue to be poorly understood and undervalued, if not ignored, both by research scientists and forestland policy-makers and managers. This article explores why NTFP harvesting suddenly emerged in North America as an “issue” in the early 1990s. Drawing from a three-year study of chanterelle mushroom harvesters on the Olympic Peninsula Biosphere Reserve (Washington, USA), we discuss a variety of forces which intersected in this period to bring NTFP harvesting to wider attention. Unfortunately, harvesters continue to be excluded as knowledgeable actors in, if not legitimate co-managers of, temperate forest ecosystems, resulting in both passive and active harvester resistance to research and management, a devaluing of local harvesting traditions, and missed opportunities for collaboration. We reluctantly conclude that despite “New Forestry” co-management rhetoric, given existing institutional barriers and positivist scientific categories, NTFP workers will likely remain excluded from active roles in temperate forest research and management-contributing in turn to the ongoing legitimacy crisis of public and private forest management entities.