The foot-and-mouth disease epidemic in The Netherlands in 2001

An outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in Great Britain was reported on 21 February 2001, followed by an outbreak of FMD in The Netherlands a month later. This Dutch index outbreak occurred on a mixed, veal-calf/dairy-goat farm in Oene, in the central part of The Netherlands. The most-likely route of infection was the import of Irish veal-calves to this Dutch herd via an FMD-contaminated staging point in France. With hindsight, more herds seemed to be infected by the time the index outbreak was confirmed. The regular EU control measures were implemented, in combination with pre-emptive culling of herds within 1km of each outbreak. Nevertheless, more outbreaks of FMD occurred. Most of the virus infections on those farms were "neighborhood infections". Because the situation seemed out of control locally and the destruction capacity became insufficient, it was decided to implement an emergency vaccination strategy for all biungulates in a large area around Oene to stop further spread of the virus. All susceptible animals on approximately 1800 farms in this area were vaccinated. All farms subsequently were depopulated, starting from 2 weeks after vaccination. In total, 26 outbreaks were detected (the last outbreak on 22 April 2001). In total, approximately 260,000 animals were killed.     

Evaluation of the stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans) as a vector of enzootic bovine leukosis

Experiments reported here were directed at 2 questions: (1) Can the stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans) transmit enzootic bovine leukosis? (2) Could early viremia augment the probability of transmission by this insect? In one vector experiment, calves and bovine leukemia virus (BLV)-infected cows were housed with and without stable flies. The calves were monitored serologically during a 3-month postexposure period, using the agar gel immunodiffusion test. All fly-infested and fly-free calves remained BLV-seronegative. For a second vector experiment, donor calves, newly injected with blood from BLV-infected cows with high virus expression, were tethered alternately between uninoculated, weaned BLV-seronegative calves. These groups were housed with or without flies in 2 replicate trials. The inoculated calves from the first replicate seroconverted at 16 and 23 days after inoculation; the inoculated calves from the second replicate seroconverted at 11, 16, 16, and 37 days after inoculation. All uninoculated calves remained BLV-seronegative. In a manual transmission experiment, 50 unfed stable flies were allowed to complete a meal on each of 3 BLV-seronegative calves after feeding on a BLV-seropositive cow with high (42%) virus expression. One control calf was injected with blood from the cow. Seroconversion occurred in the control calf and 1 calf on which flies were given access. A scanning electron microscopic study was made of the everted and closed mouth parts of the stable fly. Given the lymphocyte count in blood from the cow used in the manual vector transmission experiment, it was calculated that 3,950 mouth part volumes would be necessary to transmit BLV.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

The use of immunomodulators in the control of infectious bovine rhinotracheitis

Three experiments have been carried out to verify the effectiveness of an immunomodulator, Baypamun (Bayer AG) in limiting the spread of Bovine herpesvirus-1 (BHV-1), the causal agent of infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR). In the first experiment, four calves infected with BHV-1 developed severe disease whereas four calves given Baypamun simultaneously with the virus had less severe disease. Four other calves in contact with the infected calves became severely ill but another four given Baypamun were only mildly affected. In the second experiment three calves infected with BHV-1, which reacted with typical disease, were allowed to remain in contact with six calves. All six calves were given Baypamun at various times following the exposure to BHV-1 infection and all showed a much reduced reaction with two treated for 4 days developing no clinical disease. Finally, in the third experiment one calf vaccinated one month before the start of the experiment did not develop any signs of disease when housed together with a calf experimentally infected with BHV-1. Of four other calves, vaccinated when the infected calf showed the first signs of disease, only the two given Baypamun in addition to the vaccine, were protected from clinical disease whereas the two given vaccine only developed classical signs of IBR. In the three experiments the virus shedding by the Baypamun-treated calves resulted to be significantly reduced.     

Control of bovine coccidiosis with monensin: in nonresistant newborn calves

Newborn Holstein male calves were purchased within 3 days after birth and were removed from the local farms to the Dixon Springs Agricultural Research Center. They were hand-fed for 7 weeks and then weaned to a prepared feed. Eight groups, each of 4 calves, were housed in separate pens. In each of 4 pens (pens 2 to 5), 1 calf was inoculated with sporulated oocysts of Eimeria bovis (and was not medicated); 1 calf was inoculated and given feed with added monensin at the dosage level of 10 g/906 kg of feed; and 2 calves were inoculated and given medicated feed with added monensin at the dosage level of 20 g/906 kg or 30 g/906 kg. In the 4 other pens (6 to 9), the calves were inoculated with E zuernii and otherwise were given feed without or with added monensin as in pens 2 through 5. Another group of 5 calves (all kept in 1 pen), served as noninoculated, nonmedicated controls. At 14 days after inoculations with E bovis, the single calves in each of the 4 pens that were given the nonmedicated feed began to show clinical signs of coccidiosis and discharged increasing numbers of oocysts. The other inoculated calves (given monensin) had fewer clinical signs and discharged fewer oocysts in the feces as the level of medication in the feed increased. The calves inoculated with E zuernii developed only moderately severe infections when compared with those inoculated with E bovis. Inoculated (with E bovis) nonmedicated calves had severe reductions in feed consumption and weight, and 3 of 4 died.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Clinical efficacy of chlortetracycline hydrochloride administered in milk replacer to calves

Two similar groups of 14 calves were housed and fed identically in individual pens on a calf-rearing farm. The groups were balanced for weight and immunological status as determined by zinc sulphate turbidity values. When an outbreak of enteric and respiratory disease occurred one group was treated with 20 mg chlortetracycline hydrochloride/kg bodyweight daily for seven consecutive days, by adding the active ingredient to the milk replacer, while the other group was left untreated. Both groups received additional therapy as required. The calves were examined daily during the period of treatment and the clinical observations were assessed and analysed statistically. There was a significant difference between the clinical scores of the two groups on the second day of treatment (P less than 0.05) and on all subsequent days (P less than 0.01) indicating that the calves receiving chlortetracycline hydrochloride were less affected by the disease outbreak. The abnormal enteric and respiratory signs were associated with several potential pathogens including bacteria, viruses and protozoa. The treatment was therefore effective against enteric and respiratory disease involving several organisms.     

Immunofluorescent Studies of Bovine Para-Influenza 3 Virus II. Experimentally Infected Calves

Fluorescent antibody (FA) studies of tissues from three colostrum deprived calves inoculated intranasally with the SF-4 strain of bovine para-influenza 3 (PI-3) virus indicated that these calves developed a mild upper respiratory infection but infected cells were not identified in the lower respiratory tract. Three other calves inoculated intranasally and intratracheally with PI-3 virus developed more severe clinical signs of infection and virus was identified, by FA techniques, in the upper and lower respiratory tract of all three calves and in the spleen of one calf. PI-3 virus was detected in smears of nasal epithelium from five of six calves at some time during the observation period.     

EXPERIMENTAL ENCEPHALOMYOCARDITIS VIRUS INFECTION IN CALVES

Nine calves, were inoculated intravenously with the Innisfail strain of encephalomyocarditis (EMC) virus. Apart from a mild fever, no obvious clinical signs were noted. A low titre viraemia was demonstrated in all 5 calves from which blood was collected, and EMC virus was recovered from the myocardium of 3 of 6 calves at 2, 3 and 6 days after inoculation. Virus was not recovered from the central nervous system. No excretion of EMC virus in urine or faeces was detected in 3 calves. Histopathological lesions were present in brain tissue from only 1 calf, destroyed 14 days after inoculation, and in the heart muscle from another calf, destroyed 7 days after inoculation. Macroscopic lesions were not seen in these organs. Both neutralising and haemagglutination-inhibiting antibodies were produced within one week of infection, reached a peak in 3–4 weeks and persisted undiminished until 9 weeks after inoculation. By nitration on Sephadex G 200, it was shown that the early response was due to IgM type antibodies, and these were replaced by IgG antibody. One calf was inoculated intracerebrally with EMC virus. It developed a flaccid posterior paralysis and was destroyed 6 days later. Virus was recovered from the brain and spinal cord, but no significant histopathological lesions were detected in brain or spinal cord from this calf.     

Experimental respiratory syncytial virus pneumonia in young calves: microbiologic and immunofluorescent findings

Young calves were inoculated with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) intranasally or by a combined intranasal and intratracheal route and were killed between postinoculation (initial) days (PID) 1 and 14. Viral antigens were detected by immunofluorescence in nasopharyngeal cells from calves killed between PID 2 and 10. Evidence of infection of the trachea and lungs with RSV was obtained by immunofluorescence and virus isolation in calves inoculated by the combined route, but not in calves inoculated intranasally. Within the lungs, RSV antigens were observed in epithelial cells of bronchioli and alveoli. The only virus detected in inoculated calves was RSV. With the exception of 1 calf, bacteria or mycoplasmas were not isolated from the lower respiratory tracts of inoculated calves. Antibody to RSV was not detected in calves killed up to PID 5, but 4 of 5 colostrum-deprived calves killed between PID 10 and 13 had antibodies to RSV. Preexisting, maternally derived antibody to RSV did not protect the calves from infection. Seemingly, the clinical signs of pneumonia and pathologic lesions observed in inoculated calves were caused by RSV infection.     

Pathogenesis of a bovine enterovirus-1 isolate in experimentally infected calves

The pathogenesis and virulence of Bovine enterovirus-1 (BEV-1) in cattle is largely unknown. Reports concerning its virulence suggest that there might be an association between BEV-1 infections and a range of diseases in cattle that vary from respiratory to enteric to reproductive disease and infertility. In the current study, the pathogenesis associated with acute infection of BEV-1 in calves experimentally inoculated with the Oklahoma isolate of BEV-1 was described. Although interpretation of the study was limited by lack of an effective control group, results suggest that an association between inoculation of BEV-1, virus localization, and the potential development of lesions in the brain and heart probably exists. In the experiment, BEV-1 virus localized to the terminal ileum, ileocecal and cecocolonic junctions, spiral colon, and ileocecal lymph nodes; BEV-1 virus was detected in the cytoplasm of enterocytes, lamina propria macrophages, endothelium, neurons of the submucosal and myenteric plexi, and lymphocytes of the submucosal lymphoid tissue. Although no clinical signs were noted following acute infection, BEV-1 was localized in the cerebellar white matter of a calf with encephalitis and in the heart of another calf with coronary arteritis. The current study suggests that the BEV-1 isolate is infectious to young calves and that BEV-1 potentially can have a similar pathogenesis to that observed in natural or experimental enterovirus infections in other species.     

Limited susceptibility of pigeons experimentally inoculated with H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses

An experimental infection study was performed using pigeons reared for racing or meat production in Japan and clade 2.2 and 2.3.2 isolates of H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus to evaluate the possible role of pigeons in virus transmission to poultry. In experiment 1, when 20 pigeons were intranasally inoculated with high or low viral doses, no inoculated pigeon exhibited clinical signs for 14 days. Drinking water and almost all swab samples were negative for virus isolation. Virus isolation was positive in 3 oral swab samples from 2 pigeons from day 2 through 4 postinoculation, but viral titers of positive samples were extremely low. Immunohistochemical analysis for virus detection was negative in all tissue samples. Along with seroconversion in a limited number of pigeons postinoculation, these results suggest that pigeons have limited susceptibility to the virus used for experimental infection. In experiment 2, when uninoculated chickens were housed with virus-inoculated pigeons, all pigeons and contact chickens survived for 14 days without exhibiting any clinical signs. According to serological analysis, the chickens did not exhibit seroconversion after close contact with inoculated pigeons. Our data suggest that the risk posed by pigeons with respect to the transmission of the H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus to poultry would be less than that for other susceptible avian species.     

Establishment of an attenuated strain of bovine respiratory syncytial virus for live virus vaccine

To develop a live virus vaccine for the prevention of bovine respiratory syncytial (BRS) virus infection in calves, an attempt was made to produce an attenuated virus. The RS-52 strain of BRS virus, isolated from the nasal secretions of a naturally infected calf, was subjected to serial passages in adult hamster lung established (HAL) cells at 30 degrees C and the attenuated rs-52 strain as a live virus vaccine was established. The rs-52 strain multiplied better at 30 degrees C than at 34 or 37 degrees C in HAL cells. The differences in the highest virus titers of this strain between the culture temperature of 30 degrees C and that of 34 or 37 degrees C were more than 2.25 log TCID50. Colostrum-deprived newborn calves and 2 approximately 4 months old calves inoculated with the rs-52 strain manifested no abnormal clinical sings at all. However, all inoculated calves produced serum neutralization antibody. When the colostrum-deprived newborn calves immunized with the rs-52 strain were challenged with the virulent NMK7 strain of BRS virus, they exhibited no pyrexia or other abnormal clinical signs at all. An attempt was made to recover the virus from nasal secretions of these calves, but in vain. On the other hand, a nonimmunized control colostrum-deprived newborn calf developed slight fever, mild cough, and slight serous nasal discharge after challenge exposure. The virus was recovered from nasal secretions of this calf. From these results, it was considered that the rs-52 strain could be used as an attenuated live virus vaccine for prevention of BRS virus infection.     

Comparison of virologic and serologic responses of lambs and calves infected with bluetongue virus serotype 10

Four lambs and 3 calves, seronegative to bluetongue virus (BTV), were inoculated intravenously with a highly plaque-purified strain of BTV Serotype 10. A single calf and lamb served as controls and were inoculated with uninfected cell culture lysate. All BTV-inoculated lambs exhibited mild clinical manifestations of bluetongue, whereas infected calves were asymptomatic. Viremia persisted in BTV-infected lambs for 35-42 days, and for 42-56 days in BTV-infected calves. Neutralizing antibodies were first detected in sera collected at Day 14 post-inoculation (PI) from 2 BTV-infected calves and all 4 infected lambs, and at Day 28 PI in the remaining calf. The appearance of neutralizing antibody in serum did not coincide with clearance of virus from blood; BTV and specific neutralizing antibody coexisted in peripheral blood of infected lambs and calves for as long as 28 days. The sequential development, specificity and intensity of virus protein-specific humoral immune responses of lambs and calves were evaluated by immunoprecipitation of [35S]-labelled proteins in BTV-infected cell lysates by sera collected from inoculated animals at bi-weekly intervals PI. Sera from infected lambs and calves reacted most consistently with BTV structural proteins VP2 and VP7, and nonstructural protein NS2, and less consistently with structural protein VP5, and nonstructural protein NS1. Lambs developed humoral immune responses to individual BTV proteins more rapidly than calves, and one calf had especially weak virus protein-specific humoral immune responses; viremia persisted longer in this calf than any other animal in the study. The clearance of virus from the peripheral blood of BTV-infected lambs and calves is not caused simply by the production of virus-specific neutralizing antibody, however the intensity of humoral immune responses to individual BTV proteins might influence the duration of viremia in different animals.     

Dairy calf management,morbidity and mortality in Ontario Holstein herds. IV. Association of management with mortality

Associations between heifer calf management and mortality were studied on 104 randomly selected Holstein dairy farms in southwestern Ontario between October 1980 and July 1983. At the farm level, data were stratified by season, with two six-month seasons (winter and summer) per year. The odds of farms with particular management strategies having above-median morbidity were calculated. At the individual calf level, the odds of a calf being treated, controlling for farm of origin and month of birth, were calculated for different management practices.Larger farms had significantly greater odds of experiencing mortality than smaller farms in both winter and summer. Farms which had policies of attending calvings and ensuring that calves received their first colostrum had significantly lower odds of experiencing winter mortality than farms which did not have these policies. Farms which housed calves in hutches had significantly lower odds, and those which housed calves in group pens had significantly higher odds, of experiencing summer mortality, than farms which used individual indoor calf-pens. A policy of teat removal between four weeks of age and weaning was associated with increased odds of summer mortality.At the individual calf level, calving ease, sire, navel treatment, assistance at first colostrum feeding, administration of vitamins A, D and E and anti-scour vaccines to the pregnant dam, and place of calving, were all associated with significantly altered odds of dying. However, several interactions entered the statistical models, and the effects of those management practices were not all straightforward.     

Natural transplacental infection of dairy calves with bovine immunodeficiency virus and estimation of effect on neonatal health

Many experimental infection studies with bovine immunodeficiency virus (BIV) have been conducted, but neither virus transmission under natural conditions nor longitudinal clinical effects of naturally occurring infections in non-experimental populations are well explored. We tested the hypotheses that BIV is transmitted across the placenta during gestation and that intragestionally infected calves are at increased risk of neonatal disease. A cohort of 59 dairy cows on one farm were enrolled at parturition and the BIV serostatus of the cows and their pre-colostral calves determined with an indirect fluorescent-antibody assay. Moreover, the enrolled calves were monitored thrice weekly for specific clinical signs through the duration of the 30 day neonatal period and the occurrence of clinical signs analyzed for association with calf pre-colostral BIV serostatus and dam BIV serostatus. Confounding due to calf passive immunity and season of birth were also explored. Forty percent of seropositive cows (14/35) gave birth to seropositive calves but no seropositive calves (0/19) were born to seronegative dams (estimated relative risk 16, 95% exact confidence interval 2.6–5.8×10²⁹). Calf pre-colostral BIV serostatus was not associated with the occurrence or frequency of clinical signs — but dam BIV serostatus was associated with the odds of occurrence of calf hyperthermia and with the frequency of occurrence of calf hyperthermia and hyperventilatory events. This study is inconclusive about the effects of prenatal BIV infection on neonatal health — but it does provide evidence for the natural occurrence of transplacental BIV infection.     

On-farm eradication of foot-and-mouth disease as an alternative to mass culling

A control and eradication programme for foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) was initiated on a 1500-sow farm in Asia as an alternative to mass culling. The programme was based on mass vaccination and exposure to FMD virus to ensure the development of effective immunity throughout the population. Pigs are not long-term carriers of FMD virus and it should be eliminated by 21 days after infection. Entry of breeding stock was temporarily halted and the sow herd was partially depopulated in order to create a buffer between the infected and uninfected animals. After exposure to the virus and partial depopulation, the virus was eliminated through unidirectional pig flow and strict all-in/all-out procedures, and by thorough cleaning and disinfection of the buildings. Twelve months after the initial outbreak, the eradication plan was completed and successful. In parallel with the eradication programme, a small-scale isolated weaning project was carried out with the sow population that was moved out of the affected farm; 708 piglets were weaned to a separate facility 300 m away. No clinical signs of FMD were observed and the piglets remained serologically negative.     

Investigation of an outbreak of mucosal disease in a beef cattle herd in southwestern Saskatchewan.

This study describes the epidemiological investigation of an outbreak of mucosal disease that occurred on a ranch in southwestern Saskatchewan. Over a six-month period during the fall and winter of 1991-1992, in a herd of 515 beef cattle and 96 bison, 20 yearling cattle from a group of 105 housed in one feedlot pen died from mucosal disease. A further eight yearlings were slaughtered for salvage because they were at risk of dying from mucosal disease. Mucosal disease mortalities were the first observed evidence of fetal infections with bovine viral diarrhea virus in this herd. Animals that died from mucosal disease exhibited signs of ill thrift prior to death. Deaths from mucosal disease were confined to the progeny of one herd of beef cows. Following an outbreak of fetal infection with bovine viral diarrhea virus during 1989-1990, at least 28 (22%) of the 128 calves born from this herd of cows in the spring of 1990 were persistently infected with bovine viral diarrhea virus. However, only one calf born from this herd in 1991, and five calves born from all herds in 1992 were persistently infected. Of the five persistently infected calves born in 1992, three were born to persistently infected replacement heifers born in 1990. These heifers calved without assistance in 1992, but only one of their calves survived past three days of age, and it was persistently infected. In January 1992, 82% of the total herd had reciprocal antibody titers to bovine viral diarrhea virus of > or = 1024 which suggested a high level of herd immunity to bovine viral diarrhea virus.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Evaluation of jackrabbits as nonruminant hosts for Anaplasma marginale

Two black-tailed jackrabbits (Lepus californicus), 1 splenectomized and 1 intact, were inoculated with 0.2 ml of a 1:5 dilution of a Florida Anaplasma marginale stabilate. Five months later, both hares were inoculated with 1 ml of whole blood from a calf with acute anaplasmosis. Neither hare developed any signs of clinical anaplasmosis. Pooled blood (7 ml) from these jackrabbits which was inoculated into 2 Anaplasma-susceptible, splenectomized calves failed to induce hematologic or serologic signs of anaplasmosis for at least 90 days. Two susceptible, splenectomized calves were inoculated with 35 ml of pooled whole blood from 9 wild-collected black-tailed jackrabbits from a known anaplasmosis enzootic area. Both steers remained free of anaplasmosis signs for 90 days.     

Sequential isolation of rotavirus from individual calves

An outbreak of neonatal calf diarrhea was studied on a breeding farm of Japanese indigenous beef cattle. During the breeding season of 1982, 43 calves were born over the period 27 February-28 April. All but one of the calves suffered from neonatal diarrhea and 5 died. Bovine rotavirus was isolated in cell cultures from fecal specimens of 39 (90.7%) of the 43 calves during the outbreak, strongly suggesting that this was the causative agent; the virus was readily isolated from 81 (83.5%) of 97 specimens of diarrhea. Rotavirus was subsequently isolated from the feces of 7 of the calves in early May, more than one month after the initial virus isolation in early March. Two of these calves were again rotavirus-positive in early June, 41 days after the second virus isolation. Diarrhea had ceased in all 7 calves in March. Some antigenic differences were shown by the neutralization test between the early and later isolates from one of these calves, suggesting either re-infection with a serologically different virus, or persistent infection with the original virus following antigenic modulation.     

An outbreak of mucosal disease in a dairy herd

An outbreak of mucosal disease (MD) was studied in a dairy herd, comprising 12 cows, 9 heifers and 18 calves. During a period of 1 month, six 5 to 8 month-old calves showed typical signs of MD. They all died or were killed in extremis after 2-8 days with progressively worsening clinical signs. Post mortem lesions were examined in one calf. Non-cytopathogenic MD virus was isolated from serum or tissues from 3 clinically affected calves and from 1 healthy heifer. All cows and heifers except for the viremic one possessed neutralizing antibodies against bovine pestivirus. According to the current MD-pathogenesis concept, the affected calves were probably infected transplacentally during the first half of foetal life with pestivirus from the persistently infected heifer in the herd.     

Experimental Sarcocystis levinei infection in buffalo calves

Six buffalo calves were orally inoculated with 3 graded doses of sporocysts of Sarcocystis levinei (0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 million sporocysts; 2 calves for each dose) while two more calves were kept as uninoculated controls. One calf from each group was killed at 30 days post infection (DPI) and the other at 80 DPI. Inoculated calves showed a dose dependent response. The calves inoculated with 0.5 and 1.0 million sporocysts did not manifest any clinical signs of disease up to 80 DPI. One of the two calves inoculated with 2.0 million sporocysts showed clinical signs of weakness, emaciation and anaemia during the 5th week post infection. The other calf remained healthy until it was killed at 30 DPI. Pale liver tissue, gelatinization of fat and haemorrhages in the heart were observed in one calf inoculated with 2.0 million sporocysts; only microscopic lesions were seen in other calves. Schizonts and merozoites were not observed in any calf. Mature sarcocysts were observed in cardiac and skeletal muscle of calves killed at 80 DPI whereas no sarcocysts were seen in calves killed at 30 DPI.