Fuel and fodder from village woodlots: A Gujarat (India) experience

Having attained self-sufficiency in food production, India is now concentrating in using wastelands to increase its production of other products of agroforestry namely, fodder, fuel and small timber for the poorer section of society. Many agroforestry practices are being tried towards the attainment of this goal. In one such attempt, a 4 ha plantation was established in 1974 on Community grazing land in the village of Dhanori in Gujarat as a part of the State Village Forests Scheme. Casuarina equisetifolia was planted beca se it suited the site and because the villagers wished it. Grasses grew up naturally as a result of the enclosure. The trees were felled in 1983–4 and the distribution of benefits determined by the village panchayat. The internal Rate of Return was 35%. Villagers benefited from grasses, fuelwood and small timber for house construction and repair and from the employment generated. The success of the project led the village to organize itself into a Tree Grower's Society and undertake further planting in 1985–6. The demonstrated efficiency of the woodlot let to 200 ha of other plantations being established in the area. the poor benefited considerably from the project but if they had a greater say in the deliberations of the panchayat, the benefits could have been even greater. this agroforestry system has the potential of increasing the production of grasses, fuelwood, small timber and fruits (food) from wastelands.     

Community Forestry in the State of Uttarakhand,India: Not Meeting the Needs of the Villagers

This community forestry case study examines village forest councils (van panchayat) in India’s northern state of Uttarakhand. We describe forest stocking levels of 20 community forests and address the question of whether these forests are in a position to provide commodity resources, such as fuelwood and fodder, on a sustainable basis. In addition, we report on the perceptions of the villagers on whether their respective community forest is meeting their fuelwood and fodder needs. At the biophysical level, none of the community forests were in a position to provide fuelwood and fodder on a sustainable basis. Most forests did not have adequate overstory stocking, and there was no evidence of deliberate management to improve the situation. Interviews with 400 villagers (20 in each village) supported the field findings. Villagers unanimously reported that their respective community forest was inadequate in supplying commodity needs. Furthermore, they wished the Forest Department would provide more technical and financial assistance to guide them with forest management needs. Women are a critical part of community forestry as they are the primary gatherers of fuelwood and fodder. Although the perceptions of women toward forest management issues are important, our interviews with female villagers indicate they play a passive role in decision-making. Decentralization in natural resources management sounds good at the theoretical level as it provides villagers with some authority and autonomy, but it cannot be effectively implemented without professional guidance coupled with resources. The villagers are ready and willing to improve the situation, but they do not have the resources to make change unilaterally—they need professional and financial support from the Forest Department.     

Is collaborative forest management in Nepal able to provide benefits to distantly located users?

Collaborative forest management (CFM) is a joint forest management approach between government and community. It covers distant communities too, who live out of 5-km periphery of the forest and involves them in forest management. This paper assesses whether the distant communities are deriving benefits from CFM in the form of timber, fuelwood and fodder. A total of 350 households was surveyed using a structured questionnaire. The result indicated that distant users were getting more timber compared to the users who lived close to collaborative forest and it was opposite in case of fuelwood and fodder. About 75% and 85% of fuelwood and fodder needs was fulfilled from the private source- trees grown on private farmland. Although CFM approach is able to supply timber to distantly located households, rich and male-headed households are disproportionately receiving high benefits. Provisioning small timber to the poor for house construction in place of sawn timber which is very expensive, may enhance welfare of the poor.     

Agroforestry systems in the rural landscape – a case study in Garhwal Himalaya, India

A mid altitude (700–1200 m amsl.) village in Garhwal Himalaya was analysed in terms of energy and economic efficiency of different land use-land cover types constituting the landscape. Simultaneous agroforestry, sequential agroforestry, home garden and community forests accounted for 27.47%, 27.47%, 1.1% and 43.96% of the total geographical area of the village. Simultaneous agroforestry is the traditional land use involving substantial input of manure derived from forest litter and animal excreta and was practised on terraced slopes in private ownership. Tree cover in this system was represented by nine species with total average density of 390 trees ha⁻¹, Grewia optiva and Boehmeria rugulosa being the most dominant. Sequential agroforestry system involving slash-burn practice and cultivation on unterraced slopes without tillage and manuring was an illicit land use on community lands where forestry land use is desirable as per the government policy. Per ha annual energy input in simultaneous agroforestry system was 305267 MJ compared to 279 MJ in sequential agroforestry and 27047 MJ in home garden. In monetary terms, highest per ha annual output was obtained from simultaneous agroforestry (Rs 25370, Rs 35 = US$1) followed by home garden (Rs 18200) and sequential agroforestry (Rs 9426). Local food, fodder and fuelwood production was in excess of the local consumption. While most of the surplus food was stored, surplus fodder and fuelwood were sold for cash. Production in simultaneous agroforestry system in private lands was sustained with substantial biomass and nutrient inputs from the community and government forests. Land use-land cover changes in the region are driven by the interaction of ecological, policy and human factors. It is concluded that present policy of treating forests and agriculture as closed and independent ecological or production systems needs to be replaced by an integrated land use policy. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Compiling Market and Other Financial Data on Smallholder Forestry in Leyte, the Philippines

Data collection and maintenance of databases concerning smallholder forestry presents special problems in developing countries. This paper examines forestry data collection experiences in a series of research projects in Leyte, Philippines, supported by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, and the prospects for developing forestry accounting networks. A variety of financial data have been collected in relation to seedling production, plantation performance and timber marketing. Seedling production cost and revenue data have been obtained through snapshot surveys conducted in 2002 and 2008, and repeated attempts have been made to estimate financial returns from growing the most popular tree species. Diverse sources have been identified for timber market information. On the supply side, these include government records of registered plantations, obtaining inventory data from barangay (community) leaders, and reporting information about timber available for harvest on community notice boards. On the demand side, official records of registered timber merchants have been accessed, a detailed survey of timber processors has been conducted, and estimates are being made of apparent per capita timber consumption by district. Experiences in the Philippines reinforce that the potential for forestry accounting networks is limited by the resource-constrained situations of developing countries, placing greater reliance on one-off surveys. Use of pre-existing local networks and institutional structures offers potential for routine collection of forestry data, such as through barangay (village) leaders in the Philippines.     

我国南亚热带珍优乡土阔叶树种大径材人工林的培育

在我国南亚热带地区培育珍优阔叶树种大径材人工林,可以兼顾珍贵用材生产和生物多样性保护、生态效益最大化追求、森林生态系统稳定性维持,实现森林可持续经营.近20余年的研究和实践增进了人们对珍优乡土阔叶树种的了解,必须重新评价其林学特性和重要性.经营珍优乡土阔叶树种大径材人工林的关键技术环节在于:依据生境异质性和树种特性细致规划林地,使用良种壮苗,适时调控林分密度,运用多树种混交,通过抹芽修枝培育无节良材,实施择伐和林隙更新保证森林生态系统稳定.本文以红椎为例,对经营珍优乡土阔叶树种的经济效益进行了概算,并提出了珍优阔叶树种大径材培育的未来优先研究方向.     

Canopy management possibilities for arboreal Leucaena in mixed sorghum and livestock small farm production systems in semi-arid India

A major problem for small farmers in the semi-arid tropics is the chronic shortage of fodder for draft animals. Leucaena leucocephala has improved productivity in many places in India and in various cropping systems, usually as either a pure crop or in a hedgerow alley-cropping configuration. Mixed cropping with arboreal forms is seldom seen. For off-season fodder production, hedgerows have the disadvantage of being open to unmanaged browsing when unfenced (as is usual). Arboreal forms are generally far less vulnerable. In this paper, the components of production of sorghum and arboreal Leucaena are measured under different intensities of canopy lopping. The most productive management system of those examined was pollarding of the Leucaena at the time of under-sowing with sorghum. In a year with less than 50% of average seasonal rainfall, this system gave a yield of 4.6 tonnes/ha/yr fresh wt fodder and 3.8 tonnes/ha/yr dry wt. of fuel harvests, while increasing the standing crop of wood by 1.8 t/ha/yr and retaining a yield of sorghum grain equivalent to 46% of pure sorghum cropping; the LER of this system was 1.35. Cash values of the alternative management systems were estimated, including the discounted Net Present Value of the standing crop of timber. Maximum value was attained with unlopped pure crop Leucaena followed by pollarded Leucaena with sorghum; pure crop sorghum achieved a lower value. These results demonstrate both the high productivity of Leucaena/sorghum based systems, and the stability of production even in poor rainfall conditions. Pollarding transferred the high future value of Leucaena timber to the present value of sorghum grain and fuelwood.     

新西兰林业发展之路

新西兰林业经过50余年的发展．实现了对天然林的保护．木村生产从完全依靠天然林转变为只有1％的锯材来自天然林；一个只有不足400万人口的国家，现在年产木材已达到2100万m^3，木材及木制品出口创汇占全国创汇的12％，成为国民经济的支柱产业，未来25年木材产量将翻番．而且完全来自可持续利用的人工林；这些经验已成为世界林业实现可持续发展的典范。文中分析了新西兰林业成功的经验，希望有助于正在蓬勃发展的中国林业。     

国外人工用材林发展比较研究

大力发展人工用材林是世界各国历来采取的缓解木材不足的重要措施。通过对国外人工用材林发展的实证比较研究,全面总结其成功经验及失败的教训,并对我国40年来人工用材林的发展进行了反思,指出发展林业产业带是中国今后的战略选择。     

Evaluating Alnus acuminata as a component in agroforestry systems

The combination of alder (Alnus acuminata H.B.K.) with pastures, mainly Pennisetum clandestinum (kikuyu grass) and P. Purpureum (elephant grass) is a traditional practice in Costa Rican dairy highlands (between 1300–2500 masl). People believe that the pasture grows greener under the trees [Combe, 1979]. Alder is not only advantageous for fodder production but also for fuelwood and timber. It produces an additional source of income to the small farmer. The potential area for this association was first estimated in 60,000 ha [Combe, 1979], but more recent estimations give figures of around 50,000 ha, including one third of this area in pastures already planted with alder [Canet, 1985]. The question of whether the species may have potential for use in agroforestry systems in countries other than Costa Rica and research needs for the species are also discussed.     

泡桐胶合板材林最适经营密度及主伐年龄研究

通过对４０３块兰考泡桐外业调查资料的分析，发现兰考泡桐的直径分布可用Ｌ－ＰＲＭ进行预测；林分平均直径，任意高处的直径，单位面积胶合板材、檩材，椽材出材量可用建立的平均直径预估模型，干曲线方程，出材量预估模型进行预测。经检验其预测的精度能满足生产上的实际需要。用胶合板材出材量和内部收益率综合评价得出：４０立地指数级林地培育大中径级，中径级胶合板材的最适造林密度分别为每公顷２００株和２５０株，主伐年龄     

闽西北人工林经济效益动态分析

为比较人工林的不同林分在不同林龄下的经济效益,依据与当地林业生产企业的资料和数据,采用净现值法、内部收益率法等经济分析方法,分别对不同龄级的杉木、马尾松和桉树人工林的动态收益进行分析,并对工资水平、成本、税费、木材产量和价格进行敏感性分析。研究结果表明：各种林分和龄级人工林的净现值均大于零;桉树林的内部收益率最高,木材产量和价格对经济效益的影响最为明显。     

论云南造林树种选择的态势

可持续发展战略的推进，非木材林产品的开发，退化地的恢复，生态经济型防护林的营造，对人工林退化问题的新认识，这些都是现代林业发展对造林树种选择提出的新要求。云南具有环境的多样性和丰富的树种资源，为造林树种的选择提供了有利条件。为丰富云南的造林树种，需要在开发乡土树种，加速引种工作，发展珍贵用材树种以及开发树木新用途等方面作出努力。对今后工作提出了建议。     

新西兰人工林的发展

新西兰造林事业始于1898年,历史上曾出现两次造林高潮。新西兰现有人工林总面积为1 133 022公顷,其中90%为辐射松。新西兰人工林的主要特点是:(1)几乎全部由外来树种组成;(2)人工林的生产周期较长,25-35年,经营强度高;(3)政府大量投资营建人工林;(4)政府采取各种方针和政策刺激和鼓励私营公司和个体农场主营建人工林;(5)人工林已经发展成为独立的产业,与其它产业部门一样,具有商业性的竞争能力。     

Evaluation of 15 indigenous and introduced species for reforestation and agroforestry in northeastern Mexico

The coast of the Gulf of Mexico is characterized by dry regions with high variation in climatic conditions. This area is rich in drought-tolerant or subhumid species. The species that are potentially useful for reforestation, regreening, agroforestry activities and the production of timber, fodder, fuelwood and human food have been overexploited, resulting in the gradual decrease and degradation of their populations. This study was undertaken in order to suggest ways of improving the regeneration of these species. Fifteen native and exotic multipurpose tree species of low dry shrubland planted in monoculture in four randomized blocks. Measurements of various growth parameters, volume of trees, fodder potential and agroforestry uses over 15 years were evaluated. Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh., E. microtheca F. Muell., Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit. (exotic species), Acacia farnesiana (L.) Wild and Parkinsonia aculeata L. (native species) tend to have better characteristics in terms of growing annual rate, economic value and management schemes, while Prosopis glandulosa Torr. and Helietta parvifolia (Gray) Benth. (native species) did not establish well due to biotics problems which arose under plantation conditions. Acacia rigidula Benth., A. wrightii Benth. and two Pithecellobium spp. (native species) had intermediate yields of great interest since their multipurpose potential is the best of all 15 species. The forage potential of the exotic species (483–1684 kg DM//ha/year) were notably superior to native species (76–721 kg DM/ha/year). The firewood production volume varied between averages of 0.3–1.2 (native species) and 0.4–2.5 m³/ha/year (exotic species). This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The scope and potential of tree legumes in agroforestry

Tree legumes play a vital role in many agroforestry systems currently in use throughout the world. Because of their multipurpose nature they can be used to provide high quality fodder for livestock, nutrient rich mulch for crops, fuelwood and timber, microenvironment amelioration, ecosystem stability, and human food.Tree legumes are increasingly being used to provide fodder for livestock, as they have a number of unique characteristics which make them attractive for both smallholder and largescale livestock enterprises. Research and development efforts have concentrated on broadening the resource base by evaluating a greater range of tree legume genera, defining optimum management strategies, and developing appropriate systems which capitalize on the advantages of these species.This paper reviews the role of tree legumes in agroforestry, especially for fodder purposes, outlines the areas of current research focus, and endeavors to highlight some gaps in our knowledge which require further research effort.     

人工林香叶树木材物理性质的研究

研究了福建省三明莘口教学林场香叶树人工林的木材物理性质。结果表明：香叶树人工林木材生材密度0.826 g/cm3,基本密度为0.529 g/cm3;木材径向、弦向和体积干缩系数分别为0.235%,0.337%,0.603%,收缩大,木材不易开裂和变形,是良好的家具及室内装饰用材。     

Tropical Forestry

An overview of the forestry sector in Costa Rica was undertaken to determine whether the existing management practices of timber resources hold the potential to meet the country's demands for timber in the immediate decades to come, and to identify changes that might be needed in the management of forested lands. To meet these goals, we examined the present status and potential future contribution of the two newest forest sectors: the management of natural forest and plantation forestry. Rcsults indicate that the present management of Costa Rica's timber resources does not hold the potential to meet the country's demands for timber for more than the next ten years without severe loss of its forests. Substantial progress is occurring, but at an insufficient rate. Moreover, despite the considerable headway made in conservation in recent years, the rate of deforestation remains high. A number of factors limit advancement in natural forest management and plantation forestry, both of which have the potential to deaccelerate deforestation. In natural forest management, constraints are the rate at which forests are being brought under management, lack of budgetary provisions for fiscal incentives to private owners who alone cannot be expected to bear the cost of benefits of natural forest management that are national or even global in their distribution, and the weak infrastructure, extension services and research support to meet management goals. In the case of plantation forestry, the capability of this sector to produce commercial timber is not known. Moreover, inadequate management and extension services together with the misuse of the incentive system by private owners is likely to limit the potential of plantations. Institutional constraints include outdated legal and bureaucratic framework, market interventions, absence of clear policy toward natural forest management and plantation forestry, poor investment in infrastructure, extension and research support, and inadequate interaction among various agencies responsible for the development of the forestry sector. Such institutional constraints have allowed the proliferation of disincentives against the development of a sustainable timber sector. If the Costa Rican government's objective is to encourage sustainable forestry, it must first clearly articulate the policy and then create the appropriate legal, economic and institutional framework for implementation of the policy. Costa Rica, with its enlightened public administration system, vast technical and scientific knowledge about its forest ecosystem and extensive assistance from international organizations, must succeed, otherwise prospects for sustainable forestry in thc less fortunate tropical countries would be bleak.     

Assessing the social efficiency of temperate-zone commercial forestry programmes: Ireland as a case study

This paper attempts to contribute to the forestry valuation literature by providing a template for executing ex ante cost–benefit analyses of large-scale temperate plantation forestry programmes, taking the Irish Government's Forestry Plan as an example. An ex ante assessment of the social efficiency of the Plan is undertaken and, in doing so, a range of externalities is examined using, inter alia, contingent valuation and production function approaches. The appropriate magnitude of subvention of the Plan is also examined. The study demonstrates how large-scale forestry programmes and their external effects, both positive and negative, can be evaluated. In so doing, it provides insights into the methodological difficulties and solutions for assessing the social efficiency of large-scale environmental projects and the appropriate level of their subsidisation.