Development of an approach to lameness examination in cattle

In the preceding pages, the various components of an examination have been described. Each clinician will formulate his own method of utilizing these components. The following are suggested steps in a practical approach to the diagnosis of lameness. Evaluate the conditions under which restraint of the animal is possible (corral, free stall, stanchion barn). Assess the temperament, physical strength, and general amenability of the animal to be examined. If the animal is at liberty, its movements can be studied. If it is standing quietly observe it. If the animal is tied up and it seems feasible to examine the animal while it is walking, observe the animal and take its history while it is still tied up. Aggressive and wild animals should be observed, but little beneficial information will be gained from a regional approach to evaluating movement at this stage. Even if the seat of lameness seems to be in the proximal limb, it is mandatory in every case to examine the hooves and interdigital space at some stage during the evaluation. However, if the probability of proximal lameness is high, the clinician may proceed to make a complete evaluation, which would include studying the quality of movement before checking that the distal extremity is normal in every way. If the clinician decides to proceed with an examination of the digital region and is unable to locate a causative lesion in the extremity, he would then evaluate movement and manipulate and palpate the proximal limb. If no cause of the lameness becomes apparent, the nerve supply to the extremity would then be blocked.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Clinical and subclinical lameness in young fattenin cattle

Time dependent changes of subclinical and clinical lameness were analysed in 493 fattening bulls in three different herds with a total number of 30,621 animals. In the majority of cases subclinical lameness were observed which were caused by metabolic acidosis or deficiencies in mineral intake (P and probably Ca). The activity of alkaline phosphatase in plasma exhibited an increase and the dry matter in bone (tubera coxae) a decrease before the appearance of clinical symptoms. Changes in bone composition were accompanied by alterations of plasma Ca and P concentrations, which finally led to clinical lameness. Hence the diagnosis was verified by simple laboratory methods as the precondition for successful treatment and prophylaxis of lameness caused by metabolic disorders.     

Nutritional factors of lameness and metabolic bone disease in cattle

Lameness in cattle has numerous causes, and many factors interact to interfere with normal locomotion. The nutrients that have been implicated are protein, energy, calcium, phosphorus, copper, manganese, selenium, zinc, and vitamins A, D, and E. The fact that several nutrients may be involved with the problem should not be overlooked. There may also be factors in the diet that interact with the nutrient (particularly with trace minerals) that must be considered. When congenital skeletal deformities are being investigated, the veterinarian should not overlook the nutrition of the dam during pregnancy. When recommending dietary changes, a veterinarian should be careful that new imbalances have not been created and that the producer is not adding nutrients to the diet other than those suggested.     

Changes in limb loading with lameness for a number of Friesian cattle

Lameness in cattle is an expensive problem. Gait studies may assist in understanding the factors involved. The gait changes of four lame cows were related to the gaits of non-lame cows. The vertical forces and horizontal fore-and-aft forces during the stance phase of steps were investigated using a force plate. The maximum vertical force (MVF) was often reduced on lame limbs. The horizontal forces showed an initial decelerative force followed by an accelerative force. For sound cows the maximum accelerative force (MAF) and the maximum decelerative force (MDF) were of the same order of magnitude, while those for lame animals were generally modified. Forces applied to the non-lame limbs of lame cows were also changed, probably to reduce further the loads exerted upon the lame foot.     

Review of the relationship between nutrition and lameness in pasture-fed dairy cattle

Lameness of dairy cattle fed predominantly on pasture is increasingly recognised as one of the most costly disease conditions affecting dairy herds in New Zealand and Australia. Numerous risk factors are involved in the aetiology of claw lameness, including environment and factors associated with the conformation of individual cows. The role of nutrition requires further definition. Australasian pastures are characterised by low levels of fibre and effective fibre, rapid rates of fibre degradation, high water content, and high concentrations of rumen degradable protein during the autumn, winter and spring months. Relationships between high-quality vegetative pastures and ruminal acidosis may increase the risk of laminitis, particularly where pasture is supplemented with grains or other feeds containing significant amounts of starch. This article reviews the incidence, prevalence and pathophysiology of ruminal acidosis and laminitis and considers mechanisms by which acidosis may occur in pasture-fed cows. Techniques for diagnosing ruminal acidosis are reviewed, and practical strategies to avoid it are proposed. Currently, there is little information on the incidence and prevalence of ruminal acidosis and laminitis in pasture-fed cattle. The evidence gathered in this review suggests that ruminal acidosis and laminitis should be considered in the aetiology of lameness in pasture-fed dairy herds.     

Promoting farmer engagement and activity in the control of dairy cattle lameness

Many 'influencers' allied to the agricultural industry support farmers to implement management changes that affect animal welfare. Developing approaches to working with farmers that achieve both engagement and subsequently management changes is critical. As an example, the generation of action points and implementation of change to control dairy cattle lameness is reported and discussed here. Action plans were generated on farms receiving both lameness monitoring and intervention support (MS group; n=117) as part of a 3year intervention project. At the start of year 1, MS farmers received action planning advice from a veterinary surgeon, and then at the start of years 2 and 3, farmers generated their own lameness control action plans with facilitator support. Engagement was achieved with 114 MS farmers who generated 692 action points in total. Two hundred and sixteen of these resulted from veterinary advice and 476 were generated by the farmers with facilitator support. In terms of activity, MS farms implemented a mean of 8.22 changes per farm as compared to 6.77 on farms which only received annual lameness monitoring (MO group; n=72). While these levels of change were similar, fewer changes implemented on the MS farms (8.5%) were judged 'likely to increase the risk of lameness' compared to the MO farms (16.5%). Farmers generated substantial numbers of lameness control action points for their own farms aided by a facilitator and, crucially, veterinary or facilitator involvement reduced changes that were likely to compromise lameness control.     

A systematic compilation and classification of the literature on lameness in cattle

This paper presents the first systematic review of the literature on lameness in cattle. It identifies, tabulates and classifies relevant published work and was conducted using electronic reference databases (BIDS ISI, BIOSIS, MEDLINE and the CAB Abstracts CD-ROM). A total of 1373 unique references were obtained from 1981 to 2000, of which 914 were written in the English language. A written search protocol was designed to ensure transparency and repeatability. Pilot studies were undertaken to create search terms that minimised bias and ensured relevance. Electronic files of the search terms allow the database to be updated in future. A further 93 references were included from the most recent international conference on lameness giving a total of 1007 English language references. The systematic review process is described, including a method of classifying papers according to their study design and statistical analysis, and it is hoped that other veterinary researchers will conduct similar reviews in their fields. The compiled and classified references are available as a searchable database through the web-sitehttp://cattle-lameness.dhs.org/. The review may be used in several ways; to identify practical interventions to reduce lameness in dairy cows and to use the resultant web-site as the basis of a decision support system for farmers, veterinarians and advisors.     

Prevalence of lameness and of associated claw disorders in Greek dairy cattle industry

The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of lameness as well as the prevalence of claw–horn disruptions, abnormal claw shape and dermatitis in lame cows in Greek dairy farms and to evaluate their risk factors. Forty dairy farms were visited twice, during winter and during summer, and the lameness of milking cows was scored using a 5-point scale. In total 760 cows were lame (lameness score ≥ 3) and were further examined to identify macroscopically the claw disorders. The herd size, the trimming and footbathing frequency, the floor surface, the cleanness of the herd, the scraping frequency and the disinfectant used in the footbaths were recorded. The mean lameness prevalence was 18.7% and that of claw disorders observed in the lame cows was 75.4% for abnormal claw shape, 30.2% for dermatitis and 30.6% for claw–horn disruptions. Large herd size and the absence or only once per year trimming were associated with increased risk for the presence of lameness.     

Role of ketoprofen in the modulation of hyperalgesia associated with lameness in dairy cattle

Forty lame dairy cows were randomly assigned to receive a course of either the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug ketoprofen, or sterile saline, together with conventional treatment for lameness. The effect of the ketoprofen was measured by using locomotion scoring and by testing the cows' nociceptive threshold over a period of 28 days. The locomotion score of all the cows improved but ketoprofen had no significant effect on this change. However, in the cows that received ketoprofen the hyperalgesia associated with lameness, recorded using a nociceptive threshold test, was significantly modulated on days 3, 8 and 28 after their initial examination, drug administration and treatment of lesions.     

Observations of lameness, hoof conformation and development of lesions in dairy cattle over four lactations

Lameness and lesions in the claws of 31 autumn-calving Holstein Friesian dairy cows were recorded from before their first-calving until their fifth lactation. The animals were managed by the same herdsman and housed adjacently in the same building in one of two herds grazed either on clover-rich pastures (herd 1) or on conventional ryegrass (herd 2). All four hooves were examined routinely four times during each lactation, and claw lesions were scored for severity and drawn on hoof maps. Heel erosion and infectious skin conditions of the hoof were also recorded, and hoof conformation, hardness, and growth and wear were measured. The animals' locomotion was scored weekly throughout the winter housing period and any observed to be lame were examined to determine the cause. The development of lesions was modelled by using hierarchic smoothing splines. There was no significant effect of herd except on the prevalence of lameness in lactation 2 when the incidence of (inter)digital dermatitis was higher in herd 2. Lesion and locomotion scores were significantly higher by lactation 4 (P<0.05). There were significant effects (P<0.05) of weeks postcalving on lesion formation, claw conformation, and heel erosion.     

Genetic and crossbreeding parameters for incidence of recorded clinical lameness in New Zealand dairy cattle

AIM: To estimate genetic and crossbreeding parameters for the incidence of recorded clinical lameness in New Zealand dairy cattle.

METHODS: Herd records from 76,357 cows, collected during the 2005/06 to 2008/09 milking seasons from 155 herds in the Livestock Improvement Corporation young sire progeny test scheme, were used to estimate genetic parameters and breed effects for incidence of recorded clinical lameness in HolsteinFriesian, Jersey and crossbred dairy cattle. Recorded clinical lameness was coded “1” for cows that presented at least one event of clinical lameness at any day during the season and “0” for unaffected cows. Genetic parameters were estimated using an animal model across breeds considering all and then only first lactation records. Heritability and repeatability of recorded clinical lameness were calculated from the variance component estimates both with and without logit transformation.

RESULTS: The mean incidence of recorded clinical lameness per herd was 6.3 (min 2, max 34)%. The incidence of recorded clinical lameness in Holstein Friesian cows (mean 6.8, SE 0.24%) was higher than the incidence of recorded clinical lameness in crossbred (mean 6.1, SE 0.19%) and Jersey cows (mean 6.0, SE 0.28%) (p=0.0002). There was no difference in incidence between crossbred and Jersey cows (p=0.96).

Estimates of the heritability of recorded clinical lameness as an untransformed trait were 0.053 (SE 0.014) for first lactation records and 0.016 (SE 0.003) for all lactation records. As a transformed (logit) trait heritabilities were 0.067 (SE 0.024) and 0.044 (SE 0.016) for first and all lactation records, respectively. The repeatability estimates of recorded clinical lameness were 0.071 (SE 0.005) and 0.107 (SE 0.011) for untransformed and logit transformed lactation records, respectively. Sire estimated breeding values for recorded clinical lameness showed the lowest values in Jersey sires, and ranged between -5 and 8%.

CONCLUSIONS: Despite the low heritability of recorded clinical lameness, this study provided evidence that there is significant exploitable animal genetic variation. Selection of specific sires across and within breeds could be an option for increasing genetic resistance to lameness in New Zealand dairy cattle.     

Working towards a reduction in cattle lameness: 2. Understanding dairy farmers’ motivations

Reducing lameness in dairy herds requires farmers to adapt or change existing practices or resources. Those who seek to improve animal welfare by influencing the actions of farmers need to understand farmers’ motivations. To investigate why farmers see lameness as a problem and what motivates their efforts to reduce lameness, a questionnaire was carried out with 222 UK dairy farmers. Farmers considered pain and suffering for the cows to be an important outcome of lameness, but reduced performance by lame cows was also seen as a considerable problem. The motivator most commonly given high importance was pride in a healthy herd. Factors incorporating accreditation issues, public image and costs of treatment were generally seen to be of some, but lesser importance. Advisors need to take all these areas into consideration when working to encourage farmers to act to reduce lameness and thereby improve animal welfare.     

The incidence, cost and factors associated with foot lameness in dairy cattle in south-western Victoria

A survey of 73 dairy farms in south-western Victoria was conducted to assess the cost and mean herd incidence of foot lameness for the period from calving to the end of November, 1985, and to identify the herd, management and environmental factors associated with foot lameness. The mean herd size was 125 cows (range 82 to 220). Lameness occurred in 64 (88%) herds, and the mean herd incidence was 7.0% (range 0.0 to 30.9%). The main clinical signs associated with lameness were the presence of overworn and/or bruised soles, or stones lodged in the interdigital cleft. Factors associated with lameness were: property and herd size, age of cow, bail feeding, voluntary entry into the bails, and features of the farm track including its length, the presence of steep slopes, the type of surface material, presence and treatment of broken sections and maintenance including rolling history. The association of these factors with specific clinical signs was examined. The mean cost was estimated to be $42.90 per lame cow due to loss of production, treatment, the culling or death of lame cows, and extra man hours spent managing lame cows. It was concluded that the site, construction, maintenance and use of the farm track were of major importance to the incidence of lameness in herds in this area and recommendations for reducing lameness are made.     

Prevalence of lameness among dairy cattle in Wisconsin as a function of housing type and stall surface

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of lameness as a function of season (summer vs winter), housing type (free stalls vs tie stalls), and stall surface (sand vs any other surface) among lactating dairy cows in Wisconsin. DESIGN: Epidemiologic survey. ANIMALS: 3,621 lactating dairy cows in 30 herds. PROCEDURE: Herds were visited once during the summer and once during the winter, and a locomotion score ranging from 1 (no gait abnormality) to 4 (severe lameness) was assigned to all lactating cows. Cows with a score of 3 or 4 were considered to be clinically lame. RESULTS: Mean +/- SD herd lameness prevalence was 21.1 +/- 10.5% during the summer and 23.9 +/- 10.7% during the winter; these values were significantly different. During the winter, mean prevalence of lameness in free-stall herds with non-sand stall surfaces (33.7%) was significantly higher than prevalences in free-stall herds with sand stall surfaces (21.2%), tie-stall herds with non-sand stall surfaces (21.7%), and tie-stall herds with sand stall surfaces (12.1%). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggest that the prevalence of lameness among dairy cattle in Wisconsin is higher than previously thought and that lameness prevalence is associated with season, housing type, and stall surface.     

A field investigation of the use of the pedometer for the early detection of lameness in cattle

The efficacy of the pedometer to predict lameness earlier than the appearance of the clinical signs in a herd of dairy cows was investigated by correlating pedometric activity (PA) with clinical cases of lameness. The computer program was set to identify cows with a reduction of 5% or more in PA compared with their own previous 10 days average; these animals were then examined for clinical lameness. At the same time, every lame cow was checked to see if and when its PA was reduced. Forty-six cows showed a reduced PA; 38 cases of lameness were identified by either a reduction in PA or clinical observation; of these, 21 lame cows (45.7%) showed a reduction in PA of 5% or more, 7 to 10 days prior to the appearance of clinical signs. This cohort comprised 55.3% of the lame cows. In 92% of the lame cows identified by PA, the decrease was above 15%.