Development and Implementation of a Forest Nursery Accreditation Policy at a Local Level in Leyte, Philippines

Through a series of workshops with the stakeholders including nursery operators, tree farmers, staff of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, local government units and the academe, a forestry seedling nursery accreditation policy was developed. The resulting policy was subsequently implemented by the municipal government of Palompon, Leyte. The accreditation policy encouraged nursery operators to follow smallholder-based best management practices for tree nurseries. Implementation of the nursery accreditation policy improved farmers’ knowledge and skills in the production of high quality seedlings, encouraged adoption of BMP for forest nurseries, provided additional source of income for the farmers, enabled members of the groups operating the communal nursery to forge closer relationship with each other, encouraged utilization of farmers’ free time in productive activities, developed farmers’ confidence in producing high quality planting materials, and gained for the farmers favourable attention from various organizations and groups. The Bennett’s hierarchy of project outcomes showed that the implementation of accreditation scheme achieved high levels of outcomes, indicating that it led to substantial improvements in the lives of the farmers.     

Farmers’ perceptions of tree mortality, pests and pest management practices in agroforestry in Malawi, Mozambique and Zambia

Pest management research within the context of agroforestry is in its infancy, and it is often difficult to say when a particular pest justifies investment in research to establish facts. Understanding the potentials and drawbacks of farmers’ indigenous ecological knowledge (ethnoecology) may form the basis for constructive collaboration between farmers, agroforestry scientists and extension staff. Therefore, the objectives of the study were to (1) assess farmers’ knowledge and perceptions of pests, (2) prioritize pest problems that limit tree planting and maize production based on farmers’ own criteria and (3) to identify farmers’ indigenous pest management practices for priority pests. Data were collected using community meetings, individual interviews and direct observation by the first author. The farmers involved in this study in eastern Zambia had over ten years of experience, while most of the farmers in Mozambique and parts of southern Malawi were new to agroforestry. Farmers perceived insects as the major causes of tree mortality, followed by drought, bush fires and browsing by livestock. Among the biological constraints to maize production, insects (particularly termites and stalk bores) and weeds (particularly Striga asiatica) were more important in farmers’ minds than crop diseases. Fundamentally, the farmers’ perception of the causes of tree mortality and crop pests agreed with researchers’ perceptions and the literature. Both termite and witch weed problems were associated with low soil quality, and farmers use various indigenous control practices to control these pests. Some farmers did not know the causes of tree mortality, and hence do not take action. Farmer’s perception of tree mortality was found to be a function of operator-specific variables such as sex, level of education and years of experience with tree species.     

Agroforestry adoption and maintenance: self-efficacy, attitudes and socio-economic factors

Agroforestry is a key land use in the development of ecological corridors in tropical rainforests biomes. This research tested the social dimensions of agroforestry adoption and maintenance in the Atlantic rainforest of Southern Bahia, Brazil. A quasi-experiment research design compared a group of farmers who participated in an agroforestry development program with a group of similar farmers who were not participants in the program. The effects of the program on the participants’ self-efficacy, attitudes and intentions to adopt or maintain agroforestry were tested. The effects of socio-economic factors and attitudes were also compared to self-efficacy in terms of farmers’ intentions to adopt or maintain agroforestry. Results indicate that the program neither raised nor lowered the farmers’ attitudes, self-efficacy or intentions to adopt or maintain agroforestry. However, multiple regression and logistic model analyses indicate that perceived behavioral control, attitudes about conservation and available labor contributed most significantly to farmers’ intentions to adopt or maintain agroforestry. Overall, perceived behavioral control proved to have the most significant correlation with farmers’ intentions to adopt or maintain agroforestry. Therefore, agroforestry development programs could benefit from focusing on farmers’ perceived control of certain behaviors to enhance the persistence of agroforestry practices.     

The Influence of Farmers�� Mental Models on an Agroforestry Extension Program in the Philippines

The influence of farmers’ mental models on the success of an agroforestry extension program on Leyte Island in the Philippines was investigated. Knowledge of farmers’ mental models and hence the likely acceptance of technology was used to inform the design of a hypothetically expanded program. To gain an insight into the reasons behind differing acceptance of extension assistance, data were collected and analysed from formal interviews, translated conversations and visual observations. The data provided a chain of evidence and triangulation between farmers’ stated intentions and their actions. Farmers had little prior knowledge of nursery technology and were highly receptive to extension assistance which enabled them to develop high self-efficacy in seedling production. However, farmers’ rejection of silvicultural advice to thin and prune existing plantations was predicated by existing attitudes to forest resource management. Farmers also expressed a strong preference for a low-cost and low-input approach to establishing timber trees. Visual observations of farmers’ tree establishment practices indicated the existence of gaps in their knowledge of tree growth processes. This investigation illustrates the need to elicit farmers’ mental models as a parallel enquiry to extension activities. If agroforestry extension is to be constructivist and participatory, accommodation of farmers’ mental models and modification of program goals may be necessary. Relatively little is known about the reasons for farmers’ acceptance or rejection of silviculture in Leyte and these results indicate that further research into the way that farmers’ mental models filter and guide acceptance of advice may be worthwhile.     

Factors affecting the adoption of agroforestry practices by farmers in Cameroon

This paper presents empirical evidence on the impact of socio-economic factors on the adoption of agroforestry practices in Cameroon. The analysis uses primary farm-level data collected from June to December 1996. Three major provinces of the country were covered, namely Centre, Southwest and Northwest Several agroforestry technologies have been promoted among farmers in the zone, including alley farming, improved fallow, live fencing, cut-and-carry fodder and apiculture. The status of adoption of each agroforestry practice is described and factors that affect adoption identified. These are gender of farmer, household family size, level of education, farmer’s experience, membership within farmers’ associations, contact with research and extension, security of land tenure, agroecological zone, distance of the village from nearest town, village accessibility and income from livestock. Research findings indicate that since factors affecting farmers’ adoption of agroforestry practices differ across techniques, generalisation is to be avoided.     

Bringing Agroforestry Technology to Farmers in the Philippines: Identifying Constraints to the Success of Extension Activities Using Systems Modelling

This paper presents a systems modelling approach to evaluating the success of an agroforestry extension program in Leyte, the Philippines. During the program, variables which are intrinsic to farmers’ socio-economic and farming systems were found to have influenced the uptake and acceptance of extension advice. Evaluation of the program therefore depended on identifying the variables and their interdependencies and assessing their relative influence on program outputs. For this purpose, a systems approach which encourages breaking systems into component variables, but also acknowledges the context of problems, assisted construction of models. Using both empirical data collected during program activities and input from stakeholders, Bayesian Belief Network software was used to predict critical success factors for four aspects of the overall extension system, namely recruitment, use of written extension materials, farmers’ self-efficacy and retention of participating farmers throughout the program. A key predicted constraint to program recruitment is farmers’ perception of harvest security and while this variable can be partly addressed through dissemination of information on harvesting legislation, title security cannot. Differing levels of farmers’ education result in differences in predicted reading ability, comprehension of extension literature and possible misconstrual of information. The variable most critical to the development of farmers’ self-efficacy is extended on-farm technical assistance and support.     

Community assessment of agroforestry opportunities in GaMothiba,South Africa

The sustainability of cocoa growing systems in the humid tropics is debatable. Socio-economic and technical data were obtained from 1,171 cocoa farmers and 1,638 cocoa plantations to assess the long-term dynamics of cocoa agroforests in central Cameroon since the beginning of the twentieth century. On-site, we estimated the age of the cocoa trees and measured their density in a sub-sample of 402 cocoa plantations. We inventoried associated woody species in 45 cocoa plantations from this sub-sample. Our results revealed a high Shannon index for the cocoa plantations (2.6) and showed that an average of 25 tree species per cocoa plantation had been planted with the cocoa trees at a density of 120 trees ha⁻¹. Surveys indicated that there had been no mineral fertilization. Nearly 70% of the cocoa agroforests were over 40 years old, and all farmers continuously regenerated their cocoa tree stands. Irrespective of the cocoa plantation age, the cocoa tree density remained over 1,000 plants ha⁻¹, and fermented dried cocoa yields were 255 kg ha⁻¹ on average. Cocoa agroforests occupied 60% of the cultivated area on farms and cocoa sales accounted for 75% of total farm income. Almost a third of the farmers were from the area and under 40 years old. In conclusion, our results show that the farmers’ agroforestry practices, in addition to the fact that the cocoa tree stands were continuously regenerated and passed down between generations of farmers, could explain the long-term dynamics of cocoa agroforests in central Cameroon.     

Estimation of sequestered carbon in Article-3.4 private planted forests in the first commitment period in Japan

The purpose of this study was to predict the likely amounts of carbon sequestration on a national scale for Japan in the Article-3.4 private planted forests of the Kyoto Protocol during the first commitment period. We regarded the planted forests that had undergone silvicultural practices such as weeding, pruning, and thinning since 1990 as Article-3.4 planted forests in accordance with the definition given by the Forestry Agency of Japan. Regression models were developed to predict the forest areas that had undergone silvicultural practices, employing silvicultural subsidies and forest workers' wages as predictor variables. Then the time series changes in the predictor variables were provided by extending their recent trends, with the result being that the forest areas that have undergone silvicultural practices were predicted on the basis of the three scenarios of the variables. Thus, the Article-3.4 forest area was calculated considering overlaps of silvicultural practices over fixed stands, and the area was converted into the amount of carbon sequestration by multiplying it by coefficients such as a volume table, biomass expansion factor, and others. The result implied that Article-3.4 private planted forests were expected to sequester 8.16–8.87 Mt-C year⁻¹ during the first commitment period. These amounts cover 63%–68% of the carbon sequestration goal by land-use change and forestry activities capped under the Marrakesh Accords. To realize this prediction, it is important to provide a sufficient silvicultural subsidy to last until the end of the first commitment period and to implement silvicultural practices on the forest stands that have not undergone such practices since 1990.     

Socio-economic factors affecting the income of small-scale agroforestry farms in hill country areas in Yemen: A comparison of OLS and WLS determinants

Yemen is a less-developed country in the Arabian Peninsula, with only 3% arable land. An agroforestry land-use system has been practiced traditionally by small-scale farmers, but is associated with low productivity and income. A study has been undertaken to determine the socio-economic attributes of farmers that influence the financial performance of agroforestry and non-agroforestry farms in the Bura’a Mountain region. A survey was conducted of 150 farmers involved in both agroforestry and non-agroforestry. Both OLS and WLS regression were applied, and coefficients compared in terms of consistency and goodness of fit. Incomes of farmers were found to be influenced by education, area of land, livestock holding, family size, and whether coffee is grown, but not farmer’s age. The WLS method produced efficient and consistent results, whereas OLS regression was affected by the heteroscedasticity. The findings of the study indicate that the farmers of the study area are in need of financial and technical support from government to increase their income. Infrastructural development and public intervention in developing farmers’ technical know-how could enhance production and ensure the optimum use of land as well as soil and water conservation.     

Household decision-making in agroforestry parklands of Sudano-Sahelian Mali

This study examines farmers’ knowledge and management of soil fertility and vegetation in Vitellaria paradoxa and Cordyla pinnata dominated agroforestry parklands in a Sudano-Sahelian region of Mali. Qualitative data from a series of semi-structured interviews were used to construct an empirically based typology of farmer practices. These interrelated practices center on famers’ agroecological knowledge, decision-making, and cropping strategies and are conceptualized as variable and adjustable socioecological responses to environmental and socioeconomic contingencies. The typology categorizes farmers in terms of their capacity for managing parkland soil and tree resources in an ecologically sustainable manner while negotiating livelihood challenges. It identifies the ideal farmer as one who practices the following: (1) use of environmental knowledge that considers multidimensional relationships among ecological and social components of parkland systems, (2) agricultural techniques that adaptively combine aspects of intensive and traditional extensive agriculture, and (3) natural resource decision-making that explicitly includes women’s environmental knowledge and livelihood strategies.     

Woody Plants Diversity and Possession,and Their Future Prospects in Small-Scale Tree and Shrub Growing in Agricultural Landscapes in Central Highlands of Ethiopia

Woody plants diversity and possession in small-scale tree and shrub growing practices among farmers of central highland Ethiopia were assessed by using a complete census of the trees and shrubs existing on farmers’ lands. The future prospects of diversity and possession of woody plants in the agricultural landscapes were also investigated by using the farmers’ species preferences and seedling demands as indicators. Comparisons were made across wealth classes, proximity clusters to a nearby state forest and land uses. It was found that 27 tree and 21 shrub species exist on lands of the studied households. With increasing wealth status of the households, the tree and shrub species richnesses increased. Tree and shrub species richnesses were highest in boundary plantings and homesteads respectively. Small-scale woodlots had the highest number of tree stems while homesteads contained the highest number of shrub stems. The number of tree stems a household possesses is strongly influenced by distance from the state forest, family size, educational level of the household head and number of iron-roofed houses owned. And, the shrub stems possession is significantly influenced by wealth status, distance from the state forest, land holding size, family size, livestock holding, age of wife and possession of off-farm income sources. The species preference analysis and seedling demand computations indicated that the woody species diversity is less likely to change in the future because there is no difference between the currently existing species and the preferred ones. Nonetheless, the number of tree and shrub stems on the farmers’ holdings could increase if the seedling demands of the preferred woody species are met.     

Changes in carbon stocks and tree diversity in agro-ecosystems in south western Uganda: what role for carbon sequestration payments?

Direct payments offered as compensation for adopting practices which increase carbon sequestration have implications for biodiversity conservation. This study analyzed changes in carbon stocks and tree diversity on carbon and non-carbon farmers’ plots in a pilot carbon offset project implemented by smallholder farmers in south western Uganda. On carbon farms, results indicate a respective decline and an increase in carbon density on farmlands and grasslands. On non-carbon farmers’ plots, there was an increase in both farmland and grassland carbon density. Carbon densities in farmland were significantly (t = −2.38; P = 0.023) higher than those in grasslands. There were no significant differences in tree diversity on farmlands but significant differences (species richness t = 2.18; P = 0.04; Shannon Index t = 2.92; P value = 0.0077) in grasslands. Tree diversity on carbon farmers’ plots decreased in farmlands, but increased in grasslands, while for non-carbon farmers there was a decline in tree diversity in both grasslands and farmlands. There were strong positive correlations between carbon density and tree diversity.     

Profitability of alternative management regimes in Scots pine stands on drained peatlands

In drained, forested peatlands, ditch network maintenance (DNM) is often considered necessary for tree growth, but it also constitutes additional management costs. Commercial thinnings, in turn, in addition to their silvicultural benefits, are generally applied to enhance the financial performance of stand management but results from peatland stands are scarce. In this study, our aim was to find financially feasible management practices for Scots pine-dominated stands on drained peatland sites in Finland. Using mainly inventory data sets, we compiled altogether 29 typical model-stands for four climatic areas, four site types, and two stand conditions according to need for silvicultural care. We used MOTTI stand simulator to predict the development of the model-stands according to different management regimes consisting of various combinations of 0–2 DNM and 0–2 thinnings with different timings and thinning intensities. We then calculated and compared the financial feasibility of the regimes using net present value (NPV; discount rate 3%) analysis. The separate effect of DNM on the profitability was marginal, but the positive effect of thinnings was clear. The harvesting removals varied within a wide range, depending on the timing and intensity of thinnings, but on average, the NPV doubled due to the thinnings. In the stands of initially good silvicultural condition, regimes including only one thinning and a DNM operation generally displayed a good financial result. In the stands of initially poor silvicultural condition due to neglected early care, regimes with two thinnings produced the best NPV regardless of the often low-yielding first thinning.     

Farm Level Tree Planting in Pakistan: The Role of Farmers’ Perceptions and Attitudes

The low proportion of forested land and continuing degradation of existing forest cover are serious threats to the sustainability of forestry in Pakistan. Farm forestry has been identified as a feasible solution, particularly in the plain areas. Applying the Theory of Planned Behaviour in a survey of 124 farmers in Dera Ismail Khan district of Pakistan’s North West Frontier Province showed that farmers’ willingness to grow trees on their farms is a function of their attitudes towards the advantages and disadvantages of growing trees, their perception of the opinions of salient referents and factors that encourage and discourage farm level tree planting. Farmers viewed farm forestry as economically beneficial and environmentally friendly. Tree planting was perceived as increasing income, providing wood for fuel and furniture, controlling erosion and pollution and providing shade for humans and animals. Farmers saw hindrance in agricultural operations and the harbouring of insects, pests and diseases as negative impacts of tree planting; however, these were outweighed by their perceptions of positive impacts. Tree growing decisions of farmers were influenced by the opinions of family members, owners/tenants, fellow farmers and village elders. The factors that significantly predicted farm level tree planting were availability of barren land, lack of markets, lack of nurseries and damage caused by animals and humans. Farm forestry programmes are more likely to be successful if they acknowledge and address the factors which underlie farmers’ reasons for planting or not planting trees.     

Traditional utilization of wild date palm （Phoenix sylvestris） in rural Bangladesh： an approach to sustainable biodiversity management

A study was conducted to explore the traditional utilization pattern and indigenous management practices of wild date palm （Phoenix sylvestris Roxb） in the rural agrarian regions of Bangladesh. A multistage sampling method with 10% intensity and a semi-structured questionnaire were used for the study. The farmers manage the palm mainly for sap production with which sugar based secondary goods are manufactured. The sap is either used fresh as drink or after some sort of processing as molasses and/or alcoholic beverage. Seven diversified sites support the palm as its habitat and most palms （20.40%） occur in orchards. Besides growing naturally, the palm is also established in orchards using the wildings as the staple planting material. Although the medium category farmers own most of the palms （33%）, a considerable portion （28.68%） of it is managed by the landless farmers, who earn a substantial livelihood from the palms. The farmers practice their own indigenous wisdom in every stage of the palm＇s maintenance from planting through tapping for sap collec- tion to the processing of products. If managed more scientifically on a sustainable basis with the collaboration of farmers＇ indigenou~ knowledge, this familiar palm could be able to support the rural economy of the country to a great extent. Side by side, it would also be able to contribute to the richness of biodiversity in the region.     

Do socio-psychological factors matter in agroforestry planning? Lessons from smallholder traditional agroforestry systems

Most of the well planned rural development forestry programs of the 1970s, and agroforestry in particular, were either not adopted by the intended beneficiaries or failed to meet the needs and aspirations of the rural people, particularly in the developing countries. The reasons for non-adoption in some cases appear to be technical, bio-physical, social and economic (termed as rational reasons by the planners), but in other situations the reasons are not so easily recognisable and comprehended (termed irrational reasons). These irrational reasons are the perceptions and attitude of the farmer towards farm practices, and their role in agroforestry planning has remained almost completely neglected. The present study is based on a household survey of the farmers in traditional agroforestry systems of Western Himalaya and investigates the importance of perceptional and attitudinal aspects of the farmers with regard to agroforestry adoption and extension. In the present study, farmers’ perceptions of restrictions on felling of trees from their own land and attitudes towards agroforestry were the most important sociopsychological factors which influenced tree growing. This study implies a need to take into account the socio-psychological factors of the farmers for planning socially acceptable agroforestry programs. The importance of study of various de jure rules and regulations controlling the use of on-farm tree resources and related exemptions and their association with farmers’ perceptions and tree growing is highlighted to develop policies to encourage tree growing in agroforestry.     

Composted shrub-prunings and other organic manures for smallholder farming systems in southern Rwanda

Organic manures are the primary source of crop nutrients in many African farming systems. The quantity of such materials that are available on farms and their quality are therefore important issues, especially in countries with limited land resources, such as Rwanda. In this study, different types of compost (including composted shrub-prunings) were compared with farmyard manure (FYM) and green manure (Calliandra calothyrsus) using beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) as test crops. The study confirmed the farmers’ general opinion that FYM has high manurial value for crop yields. Composts with P- and Ca-rich Tithonia diversifolia prunings were of similar quality as FYM or dung composts and had a higher fertilizer value than Calliandra ‘green manure’ (biomass transfer). However, the farmers’ perception of trees and shrubs as biomass and nutrient sources is still very low in Rwanda. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Agroforestry Practices among Male and Female Farmers in South–South, Nigeria

Perceptions of the benefits of agroforestry practices (AFPs) and the level of utilization of these practices by male and female participants were examined in the agroforestry programs of the Akwa Ibom and Cross River State Governments of the South–South region of Nigeria. Responses were derived from 250 randomly selected respondents. Overall, respondents perceived the major benefit of agroforestry practices as enhancement of environmental conservation. Female respondents however perceived increased income as the major benefit of agroforestry practices. A composite perception index revealed that women farmers were more favourably disposed than male respondents to the utilization of agroforestry practices. The farmers were favourably disposed to the utilization of only five of the 16 identified AFPs in the study area, including ‘leaving of isolated woody trees on farmlands’, ‘utilizing woody trees as windbreaks’ and to ‘demarcate farm boundaries’, ‘planting of woody trees in combination with fruit trees’, and ‘planting of woody trees in combination with vegetable crops’. Male and female responses were generally similar although a major difference was observed with regard to ‘planting of trees for fuel wood’. The composite index, however, revealed a general low level of utilization of AFPs, although female farmers were relatively more disposed to the utilization of AFPs. The key policy implication of the study is the necessity to embark on sustained education and environmental awareness campaign, with a focus on presenting AFPs as livelihood sustaining and risk mitigation activities, against its present misperception as simply a government strategy to increase the stock of woody trees in the environment. This policy should endeavour to target landless women farmers who have been found to be more interested in the adoption of AFPs into their farming system.     

Joint simulation of stand dynamics and landscape evolution using a tree-level model for mixed uneven-aged forests

• Context  

A century and more after a major reforestation program, large areas in the French Southern Alps have moved to a landscape mosaic of old pine plantations and new, heterogeneous and uneven-aged, mixed stands. These conditions are challenging foresters in silvicultural practices and management choices.     

Improving adoptability of farm forestry in the Philippine uplands: a linear programming model

In the Philippines, smallholder farmers have become major timber producers. But the systems of timber production practiced have several limitations. In intercropping systems, the practice of severe branch and/or root pruning reduces tree-crop competition and increases annual crop yields, but is detrimental to tree growth and incompatible with commercial timber production. In even-aged woodlots, lack of regular income and poor tree growth, resulting from farmers’ reluctance to thin their plantations, are major constraints to adoption and profitable tree farming. In the municipality of Claveria, Misamis Oriental, the recent practice of planting trees on widely spaced (6–8 m) contour grass strips established for soil conservation suggests ways to improve the adoptability (i.e., profitability, feasibility and acceptability) of timber-based agroforestry systems. Assuming that financial benefits are the main objective of timber tree farmers, we develop a simple linear programming (LP) model for the optimal allocation of land to monocropping and tree intercropping that maximizes the net present value of an infinite number of rotations and satisfies farmers’ resource constraints and regular income requirements. The application of the LP model to an average farmer in Claveria showed that cumulative additions of widely spaced tree hedgerows provides higher returns to land, and reduce the risk of agroforestry adoption by spreading over the years labour and capital investment costs and the economic benefits accruing to farmers from trees. Therefore, incremental planting of widely spaced tree hedgerows can make farm forestry more adoptable and thus benefit a larger number of resource-constrained farmers in their evolution towards more diverse and productive agroforestry systems.